
Book.^ — ;£.-5t 



COPSRrGHT DEPOSIT. 



/ *«' 



I6n&. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES 



J^^^o. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES 



BY 



HENRY WILLIAM ELSON 

AUTHOR OF "HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES," "SIDE 
LIGHTS ON AMERICAN HISTORY," ETC., ETC. 



Neto fork 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1906 

All rights reser-ved 



LIBRARY of CONGRtSS 

Two Copies Received 

FEB 2 1906 

^ Cooy right Entry 
CLASS CO }Olc, No. 



4 



Copyright, 1906, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published 



, 1906. 



J. S. Gushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith Co, 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



PREFACE 

Probably in no other civilized land are the intelligent 
classes so unfamiliar with the history of their country as 
in the United States. Why are we not a nation of history 
readers? The answer lies partially, no doubt, in the fact 
that our school histories too often have been written with 
such mathematical precision as to render them dry and 
insipid. Too often they repel rather than attract, and the 
pupil learns to dislike the study of history. The defect 
is a difficult one to overcome, owing to the necessity of 
condensing and of leaving out so many interesting inci- 
dents. The fault has in part been corrected, as attested 
by various excellent school histories now in use, and my 
belief that it could be corrected in a greater degree has 
led to the writing of the present volume. From beginning 
to end I have used the greatest care to make the book 
interesting as well as instructive to the pupil. My object 
has been twofold : first, to tell the great story of our coun- 
try, with all its leading facts and their meaning; and, 
second, to lead the pupil to love history. 

In following this aim I have found no occasion to insert 
matters of mere tradition or anecdotes that only amuse 
the reader. The authentic storv itself of our great coun- 
try is one of absorbing interest, and to make it repelling 
to the pupil by assuming a traditional text-book style is 
to do an injury to American citizenship of the future. To 



vi PREFACE 

give the narrative accurately and naturally is the first duty 
of the writer of the school history. 

We may drop algebra and geology and many other 
things when we leave school, but no one can afford to 
drop history. The importance, therefore, of beginning 
right in the study and teaching of history is obvious. 

Like alt other studies in the schools, history requires 
the inspiration of a skillful teacher. The teacher should 
enlarge upon matters that the writer has been obhged to 
condense, and thus awaken an interest that the text alone 
could not do. He should see that each pupil does some 
collateral reading. The references given here and there 
in this volume are to standard books ; but many school 
libraries will contain other books equally suitable for the 
purpose of outside reading. The object of collateral read- 
ing, it is almost needless to say, is not only further to 
elucidate the subject in hand, but also to lead the pupils 
into the larger field of historical Hterature with the hope 
that they may become lifelong students of the subject. 

In this volume the usual ''helps," questions and topics 
for discussion, have been omitted, on the supposition that 
an intelligent teacher can do this better than the writer 
and that he prefers to do it. 

No pains have been spared to make this book histori- 
cally accurate. It has been prepared in accordance with 
the recognized authorities, including the most recent re- 
searches of modern scholarship. But owing to the great 
number of subjects to be treated, absolute accuracy is 
scarcely possible, and the pointing out of any errors by 
the reader will be deemed a kindness. 

In the treatment of the subjects, I have in the main 
followed the order of my larger " History of the United 
States," published in 1904, and some of the notes at the 



PREFACE vii 

ends of the chapters are taken from that work. But it 
must not be inferred that this work is merely a condensa- 
tion of that one. On the other hand, it is a new work, 
intended for the upper grades of the grammar schools and 
for the lower grades of the high schools. 

HENRY WILLIAM ELSON. 
Ohio University, 
Athens, Ohio, 
January, 1906. 



NOTE TO THE TEACHER 

No thoughtful teacher will require the pupils to remember 
all the dates and facts found on the pages of the text-book in 
history. The author must sift his multitudes of facts in writing 
a history, and the reader must sift again, as, even in a condensed 
history, many things are recorded in addition to that which is 
salient and vital. It is better to drill a class thoroughly on 
some important character or event than to give equal study to 
every item in a chapter. It is better, for example, to study the 
character of Columbus with care, though his contemporary 
navigators can be noticed but lightly, than to give equal notice 
to all at the risk of having them hopelessly mixed in the minds 
of the pupils soon after leaving the subject. In studying the 
founding of the colonies, it is well to choose out a few salient 
features and to drill the class on these till they are fixed in the 
minds of the dullest pupils. 

The same is true of dates. Nothing in teaching history is 
more unwise than to require the pupils to remember all the 
dates given in the text. But some dates must be remembered. 
They are to the student of history what the milestone is to the 
traveler. The dates printed in black type in the Chronological 
Table, beginning on page xxi, will aid in deciding what should 
be remembered. In the early history of Virginia, for example, 
the two dates that should be emphasized are 1607 and 16 19, 
with the meaning of each. 

Again, in keeping the general order of events in mind, it 
often aids the memory to group and compare. A few examples 
follow : Cortez conquers Mexico at the same time that Magellan 
sails round the world, and if the two events are fixed together 



X NOTE TO THE TEACHER 

in the mind, but one date need be remembered. The founding 
of Jamestown, the founding of Quebec, and the discovery of the 
Hudson River occurred in three successive years, George 
Washington was born the year before the founding of Georgia 
and a hundred years before the NulHfication of South Carolina. 
King PhiHp's War and Bacon's Rebellion were simultaneous, — 
exactly a hundred years after the voyage of Frobisher and a 
hundred years before the Declaration of Independence was 
passed. William Penn founded Philadelphia while La Salle 
was floating down the Mississippi. Tennessee and Utah were 
admitted into the Union a hundred years apart. Abraham 
Lincoln was killed a hundred years after the Stamp Act was 
passed, and so on. The teacher will find such recreation 
diverting to a class as well as helpful. 

At all events, the teacher should see that the pupils under- 
stand the meaning and continuity of history, the underlying 
causes and results of great movements of the past and their 
influence in shaping the conditions of the present. In showing 
the part that our great nation is playing in the development of 
modern civilization, he should impress upon the pupils the vital 
fact that each one is a very responsible factor in the great 
body politic. 



CONTENTS 



American Chronology 

I. Discovery and Exploration 

II. The Indian 

III. Colonization; the Southern Colonies . 

IV. Colonization; New England 
V. New England Affairs 

VI. The Middle Colonies 

VII. Struggle for a Continent 

VIII. Colonial Life . 

.^jji^f:: The Revolution 

X. The Revolution {Cojitinned) 

XI. The Constitution and Self-Government 

XII. Twelve Years of Federal Supremacy . 

XIII. Jefferson and the Democracy 

XIV. The War of 1812 
XV. Opening of a New Era . 

XVI. The Reign of Jackson, i 829-1 837 

XVII. Rise of the Slavery Question 

XVIII. Compromise Measures of 1850 
Nebraska Bill . 

XIX. Drifting toward War 

XX. The Civil War to Gettysburg 

xi 



The Kansas 



XXI 

I 
24 

35 
67 
82 

91 

108 
127 

153 
177 
204 
211 
232 
245 
260 
275 
286 

301 
318 
337 



Xll 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

XXI. The Civil War (Continued) 

XXII. Reconstruction of the Union 

XXIII. Recuperating Years 

XXIV. Industrial Progress 
XXV. War and Expansion . 

XXVI. Dawn of the New Century . 

Appendix : 

Constitution of the United States 

Table of the States and Territories 

Table of the Presidents .... 

Table of the Cities exceeding 25,000 Inhabitants 



PAGE 
368 

399 
410 

425 
440 



447 
463 
465 
466 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Congress voting Independence ..... Frontispiece 

PAGE 

The Landing of Columbus ........ 7 

The Fleet of Columbus ........ 8 

Americus Vespucci . . . . . . . . .12 

Magellan ........... 15 

Pueblos of the Southwest . . . . . . . .18 

Discovery of the Mississippi River ...... 20 

Dakota Bow and Quiver ........ 24 

Indian Bows .......... 24 

Indian Weapons of War ........ 25 

Indian Calumets .......... 26 

An Indian Headdress 27 

Indian Snow Shoes ......... 28 

Scalping Knife and Tomahawk ....... 29 

Home Life of the Indians 30 

A Typical Indian Face ........ 32 

St. Augustine .......... 37 

Sir Walter Raleigh 38 

Return of Governor White to Roanoke Island .... 39 

Ruins of Jamestown ......... 42 

Captain John Smith ......... 43 

Lord Delaware's Ships meeting the Colonists .... 45 

The Quarrel between Berkeley and Bacon ..... 50 

Lord Baltimore 52 

Prospect of Charleston, South Carolina 58 

James Oglethorpe 61 

A View of Savannah in 1734 ....... 62 

The Mayflower 68 

The Landing of the Pilgrims 66 

xiii 



xiv ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Plymouth Rock as it now Appears 70 

Edward Winslow 71 

John Winthrop 74 

Roger Williams 75 

A Battle with Indians • ... 84 

Edmund Andros • ... 86 

The Half Moon in the Hudson River 92 

Peter Stuyvesant 94 

New Amsterdam 96 

A New Jersey Farmhouse 99 

William Penn . . . . ' 102 

Washington returning from Fort Le Boeuf . . . . .114 
General Braddock . . . . . . . . -117 

The Fall of Braddock .118 

Montcalm 120 

Wolfe 122 

Mrs. Washington persuades George not to go to Sea . . .125 

A Colonial Child — Robert Gibbs 128 

A Pumpkin Hood, 1800 129 

The Good Girl and her Wheel . . . . . . .130 

Wool Spinning 133 

An Old Tavern 134 

Illustrations from " Plain Things for Little Folks" . . -135 
Betty Lamps . . . . . . . . . -137 

A Colonial Musket 138 

A Spinning Wheel . . . . . . . . .138 

A Foot Stove 139 

A Flax-brake 140 

An Old Schoolhouse 141 

Page from " The School of Manners " . . . . . . 142 

Conestoga Wagon . . . . . . . . -144 

Advertisement of Express Fast Line ...... 145 

A Colonial Child — Jane Bonner ...... 147 

Stamp Act Stamps . . . . . . . . '155 

Samuel Adams . . . . . . . . . • I57 

Faneuil Hall . .158 

The Minute Man at Concord ....... 161 

Old State House, Philadelphia . 162 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



XV 









PAGE 


The Battle of Bunker Hill 165 


The Washington Elm, Cambridge .... 






166 


Independence Hall, Philadelphia . . . 






167 


The Liberty Bell 






168 


Facsimile of a Portion of the Declaration of Independe 


nee . 




169 


General Burgoyne ....... 






178 


John Stark 






180 


The Surrender of Burgoyne 






181 


Sir William Howe ....... 






183 


Washington's Headquarters at Valley Forge 






185 


Benjamin Franklin ...... 






187 


John Paul Jones ....... 






191 


Battle between the Serapis and Bon Houune Richard 






192 


Major Andre ....... 






193 


General Greene 






196 


Lafayette 






197 


The Surrender of Cornwallis .... 






198 


Lord Cornwallis ....... 






199 


First Fire Engine used in Brooklyn, 1785 . 






208 


The First Cotton Gin 






. 213 


Federal Hall, New York 






215 


George Washington ...... 






. 216 


John Adams ....... 






. 225 


Mount Vernon ....... 






. 230 


Thomas Jefferson ...... 






• 234 


Alexander Hamilton ...... 






• 237 


Robert Fulton 






. 238 


The Clennont on the Hudson .... 






• 239 


Monticello 






. 242 


James Madison ....... 






. 246 


General Dearborn ...... 






• 247 


Battle between the Guerriere and the Constitution 






■ 249 


Isaac Hull ........ 






. 250 


James Lawrence ....... 






• 251 


Oliver Hazard Perry ...... 






• 252 


The Battle of New Orleans 






. 256 


James Monroe ....... 






. 261 


Emigrant Wagons ...... 






. 265 



XVI 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Lafayette's Visit to Boston 

John Quincy Adams . 

On the Erie Canal, 1825 

An Early Railroad Train 

Andrew Jackson . 

John C. Calhoun 

Henry Clay 

Martin Van Buren 

William Henry Harrison 

John Tyler . 

James K. Polk . 

General Winfield Scott 

Zachary Taylor . 

Daniel Webster . 

Millard Fillmore . 

Franklin Pierce . 

James Buchanan 

John C. Fremont 

John Brown 

Abraham Lincoln 

Jefferson Davis . 

Bombardment of Fort Sumter 

Battle between the Monitor and Merrimac 

General McClellan 

General Robert E. Lee 

Scene at Battle of Gettysburg 

General Grant 

General Sheridan 

Farragut in Mobile Bay 

General Sherman 

United States Capitol 

Andrew Johnson 

Rutherford B. Hayes 

Samuel J. Tilden 

James A. Garfield 

James G. Blaine . 

Chester A. Arthur 

Grover Cleveland 



PAGE 
268 
269 

272 
276 
277 
280 

289 
290 
292 
295 
297 

305 
308 
318 
319 
323 
326 

331 

334 
344 
351 
361 
363 
371 
373 
376 
379 
384 

391 

407 
408 

413 
414 
416 
418 



ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 



PAGE 



Benjamin Harrison 42o 

William McKinley 429 

Admiral George Dewey 43° 

San Juan Blockhouse, showing Marks of Shot • . . .431 

Theodore Roosevelt 435 

Panama Canal in Constmction 437 

Mining in the West 443 

A North Dakota Wheat Field 445 



MAPS 



FULL-PAGE MAPS 

PAGE 

Great Voyages .13 

Early Distribution of Indian Tribes (colored) . . Facing 26 

Indian Reservations (colored) ..... " 32 
New England Colonies just before the French and Indian War 

(colored) Facing no 

Middle Colonies just before the French and Indian War (colored) 

Facing 1 1 4 
Southern Colonies just before the French and Indian War 

(colored) Facing 118 

Before and after the French and Indian War (colored) " 122 

Scene of War in the Northern and Middle States (colored) " 178 

Scene of War in the South (colored) .... " 196 

The United States at the Close of the Revolution (colored) " 200 

The United States in 1830 (colored) . . . . " 272 

Relief Map of the United States " 314 

Territorial Growth of the United States (colored) . Following 428 



MAPS IN THE TEXT 



Bunker Hill and Boston 

Siege of Charleston 

Long Island 

New Jersey and Trenton 

Champlain and Saratoga 

Valley Forge, Philadelphia, and Brandy 

Siege of Yorktown 

The Lake Region 

Washington and Vicinity 

Battle of New Orleans 



164 
170 
171 

173 
179 
182 
200 
248 
254 
255 



XX 



MAPS 



The Erie Canal . 
The Mexican Campaign 
After Kansas-Nebraska Bill 
Election Chart, i860 . 
The United States in 1861 
Capture of New Orleans 
Scene of War in Virginia 
Vicksburg and Vicinity 
Battlefield of Gettysburg 
Chattanooga and Atlanta 
Sherman's March 
Center of Population . 



270 
296 
312 
328 
345 
347 
350 
360 
362 
373 
377 
438 



AMERICAN CHRONOLOGY 

Note. — The more important dates are printed in bold-faced type. 

DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION 

1000. Lief Ericson discovers Vinland (New England). 

1492. Oct. 12. Columbus discovers the New World. 

1497. The Cabots discover the continent of North America. 

1498. Columbus on third voyage discovers South America. 

1506. Columbus dies at Valladolid. 

1507. New World named after Americus Vespucius. 

1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean and Ponce de Leon discovers 

Florida. 
1519-1521. Cortez conquers Mexico. Magellan sails round the world. 
1524. Verrazano and Gomez explore New England coast. 
1528. Cabeza de Vaca explores southern United States. 

1533. Pizarro conquers Peru. 

1534. Cartier sails to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi River. 
1565. Founding of St. Augustine. 

1576. Frobisher discovers northwest passage, Frobisher Strait. 

1579. Drake explores coast of California. 

1584. Raleigh sends first expedition to i\.merica. 

1588. Defeat of the Spanish i\rmada. 

1604. Acadia settled by the French. 

1607. May 13, Founding of Jamestown, Virginia. 

1608. Founding of Quebec by Champlain. 

1609. Hudson discovers the Hudson River. 

1619. First Assembly meets at Jamestown. Slaves first sold in Virginia. 

1620. Coming of the Pilgrims in the Mayflower. 

1623. Settlements at New Amsterdam. First settlements in New Hamp- 
shire. 
1630. The great emigration to Massachusetts. The founding of Boston. 
1634. Maryland first settled by Calvert. 



xxii AMERICAN CHRONOLOGY 

1636. Connecticut settled by emigrants from Massachusetts. 
Founding of Providence by Roger Williams. Harvard College 

founded. 

1637. War with Pequot Indians. First negro slaves in New England. 

1638. Swedes first settle in Delaware. 

1639. First constitution in America adopted by Connecticut. 
1643. May 30. New England Confederation formed. 
1649. Toleration Act in Maryland. 

1655, Stuyvesant conquers the Swedes in Delaware. 

1656. Quakers expelled from Massachusetts. 

1662. Connecticut charter granted. 

1663. Charter granted to Rhode Island. 
Charter for the Carolinas granted. 

1664. Sept. 8. The English conquer New Amsterdam. 
1673. Marquette explores the Mississippi. 

1676. Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia. King Philip's War in New England. 

1681. Penn receives charter for Pennsylvania. 

1682. Penn founds Philadelphia and makes treaty with the Indians. 
La Salle explores Louisiana and takes possession for France. 

1686. Edmund Andros made governor of all New England. 

1689. Rebellion against Andros; his fall and arrest. 

1692. Salem witchcraft delusion. 

1700. Iberville ]jlants colony in Louisiana. 

1713. Treaty of Utrecht, ending Queen Anne's War, which began in 1702. 

1733. Georgia settled by Oglethorpe. 

1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, ending King George's War, which began 
in 1744. 

1754. Colonial Congress at Albany; Franklin's plan of union. 

1755. Braddock's defeat. 

1756. French and Indian War formally begun. 
1759. Wolfe captures Quebec. 

1763. Treaty of Paris ; end of the war. Conspiracy of Pontiac. 

PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 

1765. Stamp Act. Colonial Congress in New York. 

1770. " Boston Massacre." 

1773. Destruction of tea in Boston Harbor. 

1774. Sept. 5. Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia. Boston 

Port Bill. 

1775. April 19. Fight at Lexington and Concord. 



AMERICAN CHRONOLOGY xxiii 

1775. May lo. Capture of Ticonderoga. Meeting of Second Continental 

Congress at Philadelphia. 

June 17. Battle of Bunker Hill. 

December. Daniel Boone settles in Kentucky. 

1776. July 4. Declaration of Independence. 
Aug. 27. Battle of Long Island. 

Dec. 26. Washington captures Hessians at Trenton. 

1777. June 14. Flag of stars and stripes adopted by Congress. 
Sept. II. Battle of Brandywine. 

Oct. 17. Surrender of Burgoyne. 

Washington encamps at Valley Forge and Howe occupies Philadelphia. 

1778. French-American alliance. 
June 28. Battle of Monmouth. 
Dec. 29. British take Savannah. 

1779. Sept. 23. Naval victory of John Paul Jones, 

1780. May 12. Charleston taken by British. 
Aug. 16. Battle of Camden. 

Oct. 7. Battle of King's Mountain. 

1781. Adoption of the Articles of Confederation. 
Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 

Preliminary treaty of peace. 
Final treaty of peace signed. 

British army evacuates New York. 
Washington's farewell to his officers. 

1786. Shays's rebelHon in Massachusetts. 

FROM THE MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION 
TO THE CIVIL WAR 

1787. Ordinance of 1787 adopted. 

May 14. Constitutional Convention meets at Philadelphia. 

Sept. 17. Constitution finished and signed by the delegates. 

1788. Rufus Putnam plants first settlement in Ohio. 

June 21. New Hampshire becomes the ninth state to ratify the Con- 
stitution, securing its adoption. 

1789. March 4. New government goes into operation. 
April 30. Washington inaugurated first President. 

1790. First census. Population 3,929,214. 

1791. Vermont admitted to the Union. St. Clair defeated by the Indians. 

1793. Jefferson founds Republican (Democratic) party. 

1794. Wayne defeats the Indians -in battle of Fallen Timbers. 





Oct. 19. 


1782. 


Nov. 30. 


1783. 


Sept. 3. 




Nov. 25. 




Dec. 4. 



xxiv AMERICAN CHRONOLOGY 

1795. Jay's treaty ratified. 

1798. Alien and Sedition Laws enacted. Navy department established. 
1798-1799. Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. 

1799. Dec. 14. Washington dies at Mount Vernon. 

1800. Overthrow of the Federal party. 
Population 5,308,483. 

Capital removed to Washington, D.C. 
1801-1805. War with the Barbary States, North Africa. 

1803. Purchase of Louisiana. 

1804. Burr kills Hamilton in a duel. 
1805-1807. Lewis and Clark expedition. 
1806-1807. Burr's conspiracy, trial, and acquittal. 

1807. Fulton succeeds with the steamboat. 

June 22. The Leopard fires on the Chesapeake. 
December. Jefferson's embargo enacted. 

1808. Prohibition of the foreign slave trade. 

1810. Population 7,239,881. 

1811. Nov. 7. Battle of Tippecanoe. 

1812. June 18. War declared against England. 
Aug. 16. Hull surrenders Detroit. 

Aug. 19. The Constitution defeats the Gtierriere. 
Oct. 13. Battle of Queenstown Heights. 

1813. September 10. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 
Oct. I. Battle of the Thames. 

Nov. 9. Battle of Talladega. 

1814. July 25. Battle of Lundy's Lane. 

Aug. 25. The British capture Washington. 

Sept. II. Battle of Plattsburg and defeat of the British on Lake 

Champlain. 
December. Hartford Convention. 
Dec. 24. Treaty of Ghent. 

1815. Jan. 8. Battle of New Orleans. 

1818. War with the Seminole Indians. 

1819. Purchase of Florida from Spain. 

First steamship, the Savannah, crosses the Atlantic. 

1820. The Missouri Compromise. 

Census shows a population of 9,633,822. 
1823. Dec. 2. Monroe Doctrine promulgated. 

1825. Opening of the Erie Canal. 

1826. July 4. Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. 
1828. Building of the first passenger railway begun at Baltimore. 



AMERICAN CHRONOLOCxY xxv 

1830. Fifth census. Population 12,866,020. 

1832, Nov. 19. Nullification by South Carolina. Jackson vetoes bank 

charter. Black Hawk War. 

1833. Jackson removes bank deposits. Compromise tariff adopted. 

1836. April 21. Battle of San Jacinto. 
Wilke's Antartic expedition. 

1837. Patent of the telegraph by Morse. 
Great panic. 

1840. Population 17,069,453. 

1841. March 4. Howe invents the sewing machine. 

1844. First telegraph line in America, between Baltimore and Washington. 

1845. Death of Andrew Jackson. 

1846. Beginning of the Mexican War. Fight of Palo Alto. 
Walker tariff enacted. Wilmot Proviso introduced in Congress. 

1847. Feb. 23. Battle of Buena Vista. 

March 29. Capture of Vera Cruz by General Scott. 

Conquest of California. 

September. Fall of the City of Mexico. 

1848. February. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
Discovery of gold in California. 

1850. Death of Calhoun. 

July 9. Death of President Taylor. 

Clay Compromise enacted. 

Census shows population of 23,191,876. 
1852. Death of Clay and Webster. 
1854. May. Kansas-Nebraska bill enacted. 

Commercial treaty with Japan. 

1857. March 6. Dred Scott decision. 

1858. First Atlantic cable laid. 
Lincoln-Douglas debates. 

Sept. 18. Mountain Meadow Massacre, Utah. 

1859. John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry. 

1860. Population 31,443,321. 

THE CIVIL W^AR AND OUR OWN TIMES 

1860. Dec. 20. Secession of South Carolina. 

1861. Secession of Mississippi on Jan. 9; of Florida, Jan. 10; Alabama, 

Jan. II; Georgia, Jan. 19; Louisiana, Jan. 26; Texas, Feb. I; 
Virginia, April 17; Arkansas, May 6; North Carolina, May 20; 
Tennessee, June 8. 



xxvi AMERICAN CHRONOLOGY 

1861. Feb. 4. Confederate government organized. 
April 14. Fall of Fort Sumter. 

July 21. Battle of Bull Run. 

Nov. 8. Capture of Mason and Slidell. 

1862. Feb. 16. Surrender of Fort Donelson. 

March 9. Duel between the Monitor and the Merrimac. 

April 6-7. Battle of Shiloh. 

April 16. Slavery abolished in District of Columbia. 

April 25. P'arragut captures New Orleans. 

July I. Battle of Malvern Hill; last of the seven days' battle before 

Richmond. 
Aug. 30. Second battle of Bull Run. 
Sept. 17. Battle of Antietam. 
Dec. 13. Battle of Fredericksburg. 

1863. Jan. i. Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation. 
Jan. 2. Battle of Murfreesboro. 

May 2, Battle of Chancellorsville. 
July 1-3. Battle of Gettysburg. 
July 4. Surrender of Vicksburg. 
Sept. 19-20. Battle of Chickamauga. 
Nov. 19. Lincoln's address at Gettysburg. 
Nov. 24-25. Battle of Chattanooga. 

1864. May 6. Battle of the Wilderness. 
May II. Battle of Spottsylvania. 

June 19. The Kearsarge sinks the Alabama. 

Aug. 5. Battle of Mobile Bay. 

Sept. 2. Sherman captures Atlanta. 

Oct. 19. Battle of Cedar Creek. 

Nov. 15. Sherman begins his march to the sea. 

Dec. 15-16. Battle of Nashville. 

1865. April I. Battle of Five Forks. 
April 3. Evacuation of Richmond. 

April 9. Surrender of Lee at Appomattox. 

April 14. Assassination of Lincoln; Andrew Johnson President. 

April 26. Surrender of Johnston's army. 

Dec. 18. Thirteenth Amendment ratified. 

1866. July 27. Second Atlantic cable completed. 

1867. May 2. Reconstruction bill passed over veto. 
Purchase of Alaska. 

1868. Feb. 24. President Johnson impeached by the House. 
Trial in the Senate fails. 



AMERICAN CHRONOLOGY xxvii 

1868. July 21, Fourteenth Amendment adopted. 

1869. Inauguration of U. S, Grant. 

May lo. Pacific Railroad completed. 

1870. Population 38,558,371- 

March 30. Fifteenth Amendment ratified. 

1871. November. Great fire in Chicago. 
1873. February. Congress demonetizes silver. 

Financial panic. 

1876. Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. 
Invention of the telephone. 

Custer's army destroyed by the Indians. 

1877. Great railroad strike, 

1878. Electric light perfected. 

February. Bland-Allison silver bill passed. 

1879. Jan. i. Resumption of specie payments. 

1880. Population 50,155,783. 

1881. July 2. Assassination of Garfield. Dies September 19. 
1883. Letter postage reduced to two cents. 

1886. Presidential Succession Law enacted. 

1889. April 22. - Oklahoma opened to settlers. 

1890. Population 62,622,250. 
McKinley tariff enacted. 
Sherman silver law passed. 

1893. World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago. 

1894. Wilson tariff law enacted. 

1895. Dec. 17. Cleveland issues his Venezuelan message. 

1897. July 24. Dingley tariff becomes a law. 

1898. Feb. 15. Destruction of the Maine at Havana. 

April 25. Congress declares war against Spain (existing from 

April 21). 
May I. Battle of Manila. 
July 1-3. Battle of San Juan. 
July 3. Battle of Santiago. 
July 7. Annexation of Hawaii. 
Dec. 10. Treaty with Spain signed at Paris. 

1899. Samoan treaty made by the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. 

1900. Civil government established in Alaska. 

Population 75,994,575. (Alaska and island possessions not in- 
cluded.) 

1901. May 3. Civil government established in the Philippines. 

Sept. 6. President McKinley shot by an assassin. Dies on Sept. 14. 



xxviii AMERICAN CHRONOLOGY 

1902. Cuban Republic established. 

Great Anthracite strike in Pennsylvania. 

1903. Feb. 14. Cabinet Department of Commerce and Labor created. 
July 4. Pacific cable completed. 

Nov. 6. The United States recognizes the new Republic of Panama. 
Nov. 18. Canal treaty with Panama signed by Secretary Hay. 
Dec. 2. Ratified by Panama. 

1904. Feb. 23. Panama treaty ratified by the United States Senate. 
Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OP THE UNITED 
STATES 

CHAPTER I 
DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 

In these modern days when a man can converse with his 
friend across three thousand miles of sea, when the record 
of the world's events Hes printed before us within a few 
hours of their happenins;, it seems strange that it is but four 
hundred years since half the land area of the earth was 
wholly unknown to the inhabitants of the other half. 

Voyages of the, Northmen. — The records of the first 
discovery of America are found in the writings, called 
*' sagas," of the Northmen. ^ These hardy rovers of the sea 
are said to have made many voyages to the coast of North 
America, the best known and probably the first being that 
of Lief Ericson, whose father, Eric the Red, had founded 
a colony in Greenland. 

Lief Ericson reached the coast of North America in the 
year looo, made a temporary settlement, and named the 
place Vinland, because it abounded in grapes. Vinland 
is supposed to have been somewhere on the coast of New 
England, but the exact spot cannot be determined. The 
Northmen made many later voyages, but at length they 
ceased coming. They did not know that they had dis- 

1 Inhal)itants of Norwav. 



2 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

covered a continent, and five hundred years were yet to 
pass before its existence was to become known to civilized 
man. The discovery by the Northmen added little to 
geographical knowledge and left no permanent effect on 
the world. 

Trade with the East. — For ages before the time of 
Columbus, the true discoverer of the New World, there 
had been a flourishing trade between Europe and Asia. 
The goods sent from Europe to the Orient were linen and 
woolen goods, coral, glass vessels, and wine ; those received 
in return were spices, silks, precious stones, ivory, and 
pearls. The routes were long and fraught with dangers, 
and as the goods changed hands several times in the jour- 
ney, the people of Europe never met the people of Asia. 

There were two main routes of trade between Europe 
and the East. One of these was from the city of Venice, 
chiefly by water, by way of Cairo, the Red Sea, and the 
Indian Ocean. The other was from Genoa to Con- 
stantinople, and thence overland through the desert by 
means of caravans. After a long period of rivalry 
between these two Itahan cities, one of these routes was 
closed by one of the great events of history, — the fall of 
Constantinople. 

For more than a thousand years this city on the Bos- 
phorus was one of the chief centers of Christendom, but 
in 1453 it was captured by the Turks, and the crescent sup- 
planted the cross. The Turks then refused the use of the 
Bosphorus and the Black Sea to the Christian trader. This 
led the Europeans to wonder if some other route, an " out- 
side route," to the far-off "land where the spices grow," 
might not be found. 

The Empire of Cathay. — Southeastern Asia was known 
as the Indies, and this term was also used to desi^'nate 



GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 3 

Japan, or Cipango, and parts of China known by the poetic 
name of Cathay. 

Cathay was beHeved to be a mighty empire of fabulous 
wealth and gilded cities. This belief was confirmed by 
Marco Polo, who, as a youth, had accompanied his father 
on a trading tour to China. Here he entered the services 
of the emperor and remained for twenty-four years. 
Returning in the year 1295 to his home in Venice, he 
wrote a book about the marvels of the East, describing the 
gorgeous landscapes, the broad rivers, and the towered 
cities. In this book Polo confirmed the growing belief that 
there was an ocean east of Asia ; and as the earth was 
believed to be a globe, it was most natural to beUeve that 
the ocean east of Asia might be the same as the ocean west 
of Europe, and if so, a voyage westward must bring the 
mariner to the Indies of the East. 

Geographical Knowledge. — For many hundred years 
before this time there was a general behef among the 
learned that the earth is a sphere. But if there were peo- 
ple living on the opposite side of the earth, how could they 
walk with their heads downward ? This was a question that 
puzzled the wisest.^ 

It was believed that Europe occupied the center of the 
earth, that the ocean sloped downward in all directions, and 
that if a ship passed too far down, it would not be able to 
return. Other fantastic theories of the time were, that the 
earth was belted in the center by a fiery zone, where the 
seas boiled and the rays of the sun were unbearable ; that 

1 Copernicus, who first taught the world that our earth is but a ball swing- 
ing in space and that " upward " and " downward " are but relative terms, 
was born in 1473. The law of gravity, by which the earth attracts and 
holds smaller bodies, was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton, who was born 
in 1642. 



4 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

in the remote regions the ocean was inhabited by dreadful 
monsters, while above the waters hovered a gigantic bird 
that could carry a ship away in its talons. One story was 
that certain phantom islands would rise from the water and 
then suddenly disappear. By such beliefs mariners were 
long deterred from venturing far into the Sea of Darkness, 
as the Atlantic Ocean was called. But these theories were 
for the most part exploded many years before .the New 
World was discovered. 

In 1487 Bartholomew Diaz completed a voyage down 
the African coast, around the Cape of Good Hope, far 
into the Indian Ocean, and back by the same route to Lis- 
bon, the starting point. He found no fiery zone, no sea- 
monsters, and the journey homeward had been no more 
uphill than the outward trip. The voyage of Diaz, the 
greatest in history up to that time, not only disproved the 
fanciful theories of the Middle Ages, it also led men to 
believe that the Indies could be reached by sailing around 
Africa. 

Italy and Portugal. — The most advanced nation in navi- 
gation and geographical knowledge at this period was Italy, 
and the leading discoverers of the time were Italians.^ But 
the position of Italy prevented her taking the lead in dis- 
covery. Portugal was the foremost nation in searching for 
a route to the Indies around Africa. But the distance to 
the Indies by the African route was very great, and a 
knowledge of this fact led men to cast their eyes longingly 
toward the West. It was beheved that a shorter route 
could be found by sailing across the Sea of Darkness, but 
who would venture on a journey so perilous ? A young 
man who came to Portugal from Italy about 1470 at length 
furnished an answer to the question. 

^ Notably, Columbus, Cabot, Vespucius, and Verrazano. 



COLUMBUS 



Career of Christopher Columbus 

Columbus was born, probably about 1436, in Genoa, a 
beautiful city on the northern shore of the Mediterranean. 
While yet a child his attention was turned to the sea, and 
before he reached manhood he was a skillful mariner. 
Genoa and Venice were often at enmity and when their 
ships met on the sea, they fought. In one of these naval 
duels Columbus commanded one of the ships. After the 
men had fought for some hours, many being slain, both 
vessels took fire. Columbus then leaped into the sea and 
swam to shore, six miles away.^ 

Columbus read the book of Marco Polo and it made a 
deep impression on his life. He was a diligent student of 
nautical science and in that study acquired all the knowl- 
edge of the age in which he lived. Hearing that Portugal 
took the lead in the study of navigation, he left his native 
land and became a resident of Lisbon. Here he supported 
himself by making maps and charts, taking an occasional 
voyage on the Atlantic. After living in Lisbon for some 
years he reached the conviction that the East could be 
reached by sailing westward, that he could find the Indies 
by crossing the Atlantic, and that God had raised him up 
to do this great service for mankind. Not having the 
means to carry out his project and believing it to be a 
work of such great importance that it should be the work of 
a nation and not of an individual, Columbus applied to King 
John II of Portugal for assistance. The king, ordinarily 
a man of probity, now did an unjust thing: he noted the 
plans of Columbus, and then sent a secret expedition to 
make the discovery. This came to naught and Columbus, 

1 This story is related by Columbus's son, Fernando. 



6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

hearing of the treachery, left Portugal in anger and went 
to Spain. This was probably in 1485. 

Columbus in Spain. — Ferdinand and Isabella, his wife, 
were the joint sovereigns of Spain. They were in the 
midst of a long war with the Moors, and as they moved 
from place to place with the army, in pursuit of the enemy, 
Columbus followed. At various times he succeeded in 
getting a partial hearing, but failed to secure the aid he 
needed, and after several years of fruitless toil, he de- 
termined to quit Spain and repair to France.^ Stopping 
at a monastery, Columbus again related the story of his 
ambition. The prior, Juan Perez, heard and believed. 
Being a friend of Queen Isabella and well known to her, 
he hastened to lay the plans of Columbus again before 
her. The queen was converted. She sent for Columbus, 
and at length arrangements were made for the most famous 
of all sea voyages. 

The Great Voyage. — The voyage began on August 3, 
1492. Three little vessels, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, 
and Nina, had been fitted out. The crew was a motley 
crowd, composed in part of criminals released from prison. 
It would have been scarcely possible to secure a crew for 
an undertaking so uncertain in its outcome but for the 
mistake of Columbus in believing that the Atlantic was 
much narrower than it is. 

The weather during the voyage was fine, but this fact 
did not allay the superstitious fears of the sailors. When, 
early in September, they left the last of the Canary Islands 
behind and launched into the open sea, the men broke into 
wails and sobs. After sailing westward for several weeks 

1 Columbus had sent his brother Bartholomew to England to lay the 
project before King Henry VII, but the English king refused to be interested 
in it. 



LANDING OF COLUMBUS 7 

they saw ummistakable signs of land — a floating branch 
of a tree, a staff carved by ^the hand of man, flights of 
birds that are not supposed to reach midocean. One 
night soon after midnight Columbus saw a light which 
seemed like a torch in the hands of some one walking. 




THE FLEEI 



Next morning, October 12, 1492, revealed a verdant shore, 
six miles away, covered with waving trees. 

Columbus, with a few foflowers, made a landing. He 
was overcome with emotion; he burst into tears; he 
bowed down and kissed the ground. He thanked God 
for the realization of his dream, and, drawing his sword, 




«®»il^j,»«€C-s^SS*i ■ 



The Landing of Columbus 
From an original print 



Savaf^e 



LATER CAREER OF COLUMBUS 9 

took possession in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
The landing- place is supposed to have been Watling Island, 
one of the Bahamas. Columbus called the island San Sal- 
vador (Holy Savior), the name of the day, October 12, in 
the Spanish calendar. 

The Spaniards were met by a swarm of unclothed 
savages, who believed that the strange visitors had come 
from the skies. Columbus, thinking that he had reached 
the Indies, called the natives Indians. He bore a friendly 
letter from the king and queen of Spain to the ruler of 
Cathay ; but where were the towered cities, the mighty 
rivers, the ivory, the spices, and the gold ? Little did 
Columbus dream that the empire he sought was ten thou- 
sand miles away and that between him and it lay an undis- 
covered ocean far greater in extent than the one he had 
crossed. 

After cruising among the Bahamas for ten days, the 
Spaniards turned southward and discovered Cuba and 
Haiti. Though they had not found Cathay, Columbus 
believed that they had discovered islands lying just east of 
Asia, and if so, a new route to the Indies was found at last. 
Leaving forty of his crew, with provisions for a year, to 
found a colony on the island of Haiti, he embarked for 
home on January 4 and reached Palos, whence he had 
started, on the 15th of March. 

Later Career of Columbus. — ^When Columbus arrived in 
Spain in the spring of 1493, the sovereigns and people 
received him with great demonstrations of esteem. Many 
who had formerly jeered him in the streets as a dreamer 
and a fanatic now joined the multitudes in raising a shout 
of welcome in his honor. The sovereigns were soon busy 
fitting Columbus out for a second voyage. With seventeen 
vessels he embarked in September, 1493. On reaching the 



10 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

place where he had left the colony, he found that 
all had perished. The white bones scattered about told 
the sad story : the colony had been destroyed by the natives. 
Columbus now planted a colony in San Domingo, and after 
spending three years among the islands, returned to Spain. 
Two years later he made a third voyage and discovered 
Trinidad and the mainland of South America at the mouth 
of the Orinoco River. Believing himself in Asiatic waters, 
he took this river to be one of the great rivers mentioned 
in the Bible as flowing from the Garden of Eden. 

The fortunes of the great navigator now took a down- 
ward turn. He had enemies at the Spanish court who 
succeeded in poisoning the minds of the sovereign against 
him. An agent, sent to investigate the methods of Colum- 
bus in governing his colony, arrested him and sent him to 
Spain in chains. But he was soon released by the good 
queen and he made a fourth voyage to the New World. 
Returning to Spain broken in health and spirits, he died at 
Valladohd in poverty and want on May 20, 1 506. Columbus 
died believing that he had discovered the eastern coast of 
Asia and had opened a new route to the Indies. The real 
grandeur of his discoveries — a new continent rivaling the 
old in extent, the seat of future empires, and the home of 
millions yet to be born — perhaps never dawned on the 
mind of Columbus. Other navigators soon rose to promi- 
nence and the name of Columbus fell into obscurity ; but 
when, as years passed, it became known that it was not the 
East Indies that had been discovered, but a vast new con- 
tinent, and when it was remembered that the way had been 
opened by this wandering Genoese, his half -forgotten name 
was revived and he was placed among the immortals. ^ 

1 See note on Columbus, p. 23. 



JOHN CABOT II 



Other Discoverers 



John Cabot. — Christopher Columbus never saw the 
mainland of North America and his discovery of South 
America at the mouth of the Orinoco was made the year 
after John Cabot had discovered North America. Jphn 
Cabot, like Columbus, was an Italian and a native of Genoa. 
He was a merchant and seaman ; he removed to Bristol, 
England, about 1490. When the news of the Spanish dis- 
coveries reached England, no doubt King Henry VH 
regretted that he had not Hstened to Bartholomew Colum- 
bus, and when Cabot applied to him for a permit to seek 
western lands, it was readily granted. 

For ages there had been a belief in England, known to 
legend and song, that there were lands unknown, some- 
where, far away, beyond the stormy western seas, and 
widespread interest was awakened by the project of Cabot. 
He sailed in the MattJiciv with a crew of eighteen men on 
May 2, 1497, and landed, seven weeks later, probably on 
the coast of Labrador. He soon returned and the next 
year made a second voyage to the coast of North America 
and followed the coast as far south, it is believed, as Cape 
Hatteras. Cabot supposed, like Columbus, that he had 
reached Cipango and Cathay. 

For many years it was believed that Sebastian Cabot, 
son of John Cabot, was the real discoverer of North 
America. But it is now known that, although Sebastian 
probably accompanied his father on the first voyage, the 
sole honor of the discovery belongs to the father. 

The Cabot discoveries created great excitement in Eng- 
land, but it soon subsided. Many years later, however, 
when it became known that a new continent had been 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



found, England laid claim to the whole of North America 
on the ground of the Cabot discoveries. 

Naming of America. — Many years passed after the dis- 
coveries made by Colum- 
bus and Cabot before it 
was known that a great 
new continent had been 
found. Meantime others 
were making voyages to 
the new lands.^ Among 
them was Americus Ves- 
pucius, a native of Flor- 
ence, Italy ; a resident 
of Seville, Spain. In 
one of his voyages, prob- 
ably in I 501, he sailed 
far down the coast of 
Brazil. Believing it to 
be a continent, he wrote 
a brief account of the 
" New World," as he 
called it. The pamphlet awakened great interest through- 
out Europe; its author was hailed as the discoverer of a 
continent, while Columbus was remembered as discovering 
only some unimportant islands. 

In 1507 a German professor, Waldseemuller, in a 
pamphlet on geography suggested that this fourth part of 
the world be named America, after its discoverer.^ He 

1 In the year 1500 a Portuguese navigator named Cabral, while attempting 
to follow the course of Vasco da Gama (who had reached the Indies by sailing 
round Africa), swung too far westward and touched the coast of Brazil. This 
M^as a real, though accidental, discovery of America and might have been 
made had Columbus never lived. 

■^ Europe, Asia, and Africa were known as the first, second, and third parts. 




Americus Vespicius 



14 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

also made a map, the same year, 1507, using the name 
America for the New World. ^ 

While it is agreed that the New World should have 
been called after its true discoverer, there is every reason 
to believe that the name America was given through ignor- 
ance of the facts and that no one meant to defraud 
Columbus. 

Discovery of Florida. — Had Columbus on his first voyage 
continued his course westward for only a few days longer 
he would have reached the coast of Florida, but changing 
to the southwest, he came to the Bahama Islands. The 
first Spaniard to set foot on the soil of the United States 
was Ponce de Leon, (Pon' tha da la on') who had accom- 
panied Columbus on his second voyage and later had 
become governor of Haiti, or Hispaniola, and still later 
of Porto Rico. De Leon heard of a land far away in 
which there was said to be a magical spring whose waters 
had the power to restore youth to the aged. 

In the spring of 15 13 he set out with three vessels to 
find this fountain of youth, as well as to discover new 
lands. On Easter Sunday he and his men anchored 
near the site on which St. Augustine was afterward 
founded. He called the land Florida after the Spanish 
name for Easter, Pascua Florida, and took possession in 
the name of his sovereign. Eight years later De Leon 
again went to Florida with a company, in the hope of 
founding a colony ; but the natives rose against them, and 
De Leon was shot with a poisoned arrow. Not long after 
this he died of his wound in Cuba. 

Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. — Vasco Nunez de 

1 A copy of the original of this map was recently found in an old library at 
Wurtemburg. The name America was first used for Brazil only. Not until 
about 1 541 was it applied to all the land area of the New World. 



FIRST VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD 



15 



Balboa was a bankrupt, an adventurer, and a leader of 
rebels. Escaping from his creditors in Santo Domingo, 
he went to the Isthmus of Panama and became a leader of 
a band of freebooters. Being informed one day by an 
Indian chief that beyond the mountains was a great sea 
and that the lands bordering on it abounded in silver and 
gold, he led his company thither. Ascending the moun- 
tain alone, in advance of 
his men, he looked down 
on a vast expanse of 
water, which he called the 
South Sea. He afterward 
waded into its waters and 
declared that the sover- 
eigns of Spain should hold 
possession of this and 
of its islands and coasts 
"while the earth revolves, 
and until the universal 
judgment of mankind." ^ 

First Voyage round the 
World. — In 15 19 a Por- 
tuguese named Ferdinand 
Magellan, (Ma jel' Ian) 
in the service of Spain, 

crossed the Atlantic, sailed down the coast of South 
America, through the straits that bear his name, and into 
the broad ocean that had been discovered a few years 
before by Balboa. So smooth and peaceful was the 
boundless plain of water that he called it Pacific, and this 
name eventually supplanted that given by Balboa. 

^ A few years later Balboa was put to death by the governor of Darien, on 
a charge of treason. 




Magellan 



l6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Magellan and his men, after sailing up the western coast 
of South America, struck out boldly westward, and crossed 
the Pacific to the Philippine Islands. Here in an encounter 
with the natives Magellan was killed. The survivors of 
his crew continued their journey, sailing round Africa and 
reaching Spain in 1521. They had five vessels when they 
started and but one when they returned. A large majority 
of the men had perished on the voyage. The object of 
Magellan's voyage was to find a southwest passage to the 
Indies ; the end it accomplished was, it furnished unmis- 
takable proof that the earth is a globe. 

Conquest of Mexico and Peru. — Though but indirectly 
bearing on the history of the United States, it may be 
mentioned that, in 1519-1521, Hernando Cortez with a few 
hundred men, conquered Mexico, took possession of the 
capital, and was made governor of the country ; and that 
in 1531-1532 Francisco Pizarro, with a small band of men, 
conquered Peru, plundered the natives of vast quantities 
of gold, and treacherously put to death the chief, who had 
fallen into his power. 

Explorations 

What may be termed the period of discovery was fol- 
lowed by the period of exploration, though it is not always 
easy to draw a fine between the discoverers and the ex- 
plorers. Spain had taken the lead in discovery ; she took 
the lead also in exploration. Before the middle of the 
sixteenth century Spanish explorers had overrun a territory 
in the New World far greater than the whole of Europe. 
Much of this was in Central and South America and is 
not directly connected with the history of the United 
States. The chief motives of the explorers was a thirst 
for gold, a love of adventure, the hope of finding a passage 



NARVAEZ IN FLORIDA 1 7 

to the Indies, to which were added some pretense of pre- 
paring for future settlement, and a desire to convert the 
natives to Christianity. 

Narvaez in Florida. — Fired by the conquest of Mexico by 
Cortez, Panfilo de Narvaez (Nar vah' eth) determined to 
make a similar conquest in Florida. Authorized by his 
government, he sailed for Florida in 1528 with an army 
of four hundred men. The Indians were hostile and the 
Spaniards suffered greatly from their attacks, from hunger, 
and from wading through swamps. Many of them perished 
and found a grave in the wilderness. They found no 
gold, and after a weary march of many months the sur- 
vivors returned to the Gulf of Mexico, only to find that 
their ships were gone. They built a few frail boats and 
sailed westward, but all their boats except one were 
wrecked in a violent storm. Narvaez was among the lost. 

The surviving vessel made a landing and its few occu- 
pants again became wanderers in the forest. The surviv- 
ors were at length reduced to four, Cabeza de Vaca and 
three companions. For years they wandered aimlessly ; 
they traveled more than two thousand miles, and after 
eight years from the time they had started with Narvaez 
they reached a Spanish settlement in northern Mexico on 
the Pacific coast. 

The " Seven Cities of Cibola." — Wonderful were the tales 
told by De Vaca of his long journeyings. He told of 
visiting many Indian tribes and of having heard of won- 
derful cities abounding in gold and precious stones. The 
story of the golden cities fired the Spanish imagination 
and led to its connection with two legends. One was a 
legend of the Indians of Mexico that about forty days' 
march to the northward were seven cities of great wealth. 
The other was that long ago a bishop of Lisbon had sailed 



l8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

with many followers into the Sea of Darkness and had 
founded seven cities on a group of islands. 

These two legends were easily confounded by the imagi- 
native Spaniards of Mexico, and as the story of De Vaca 
seemed to agree with the legends there was little room to 
doubt the existence of the wonderful cities. And yet, to 
make sure, a priest named Marcos was sent to explore and 




Pueblos of the Southwest 



report. After many days' traveling he ascended a hill 
and came in view of one of the cities. The buildings were 
great apartment houses, several stories in height, each being 
the home of many families. As the natives were hostile 
Marcos did not enter ; he returned and told his story. 
What he had seen was one of the Zuni (Zoo' nye) pueblos 
of New Mexico, known as Cibola, and the '* Seven Cities 
of Cibola " became still more real to the Spanish mind. 



CORONADO^S EXPEDITION IQ 

Great was the desire to explore this marvelous region, and 
this feeling led to the two most remarkable exploring tours 
of the time, covering most of the southern half of the soil 
of the United States — those of Coronado and of De Soto. 

Coronado's Expedition. — Coronado was one of the Span- 
ish governors in Mexico. In 1540 he started with an 
army of eleven hundred men to find the seven cities. 
After a terrible march through deserts and over moun- 
tains he reached the land of the strange pueblos, which 
he conquered one after another. But he was greatly dis- 
appointed in finding no gold. He next led his army 
northward. They encountered great herds of buffalo and 
crossed vast treeless plains, proceeding probably as far as 
the valley of the Piatt River. Still they found no gold, 
and after two years of wandering Coronado, broken- 
hearted, led the fragments of his shattered army back to 
Mexico. 

De Soto ; Discovery of the Mississippi. — Ferdinand de Soto, 
a Spanish nobleman who had become rich by aiding Pizarro 
in the conquest of Peru, also heard wonderful stories about 
Florida and the southwest, and determined to lead an 
expedition in search of gold. With a splendid army of 
nearly six hundred men and more than two hundred horses 
De Soto reached the coast of Florida in the spring of 1539. 
Then began a march of several years through the wilder- 
ness. The army had many fierce encounters with the 
Indians ; but some tribes were friendly. Hearing that far 
in the north there was a land abounding in gold, occupied 
by a tribe which was ruled over by a young queen, a beau- 
tiful girl of eighteen years, De Soto turned his steps to the 
northward. He reached the place, on the banks of a beau- 
tiful river, supposed to be the Savannah. He met the 
Indian queen, who received him with friendliness. After 



20 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



remaining here for some weeks and finding the "gold " 
to be only an alloy of copper, the Spaniards again turned 
their weary eyes to the wilderness. 




1)1^' <)\ I RV OF THE Mississippi Ri\kr 



Moving southward, they encountered a fierce tribe ot 
Indians and the battle of Mobile was fought. In this bat- 
tle the Spaniards slew thousands, but the victory was a 
dear one. Many of the men and horses were killed and 



FROBISHER AND DRAKE 21 

all their baggage was burned. Weary and worn, the 
Spaniards turned northwestward and in the spring of 1541 
discovered the Mississippi River, probably near the bound- 
ary between Tennessee and Mississippi. De Soto did not 
realize the importance of his discovery ; he thought only 
of gold. Crossing the great river, the Spaniards made a 
detour far toward the northwest, consuming another year, 
and returned to the Mississippi near the mouth of the Red 
River. De Soto was haggard and worn and a slow fever 
was sapping his life. He died in May, 1542, and at mid- 
night, in the hollow of an oaken log, his body was sunken 
into the depths of the great stream which he had discovered. 
A year and a half later the survivors of his party reached 
a Spanish settlement in Mexico. 

Frobisher and Drake. — Three quarters of a century passed 
after the Cabot discoveries before another English expedi- 
tion set out for the New World. At length, after vast 
tracts had been explored by other peoples, an interest was 
reawakened in England. 

Sir Martin Frobisher crossed the Atlantic in 1576 on the 
old quest for a northwest passage. He sailed through the 
strait that is called by his name, and afterward made two 
additional voyages to the same region. 

Far greater was the voyage of Sir Francis Drake, who 
was the first after Magellan to sail round the world. 
Leaving Plymouth, England, in December, 1577, Drake 
crossed the Atlantic, passed through Magellan Strait, pro- 
ceeded to the coast of California, and took possession of 
the country for the queen of England. He then crossed the 
Pacific, and the Indian Ocean, and sailing round Africa, 
reached England in November, 1580. Drake captured 
many Spanish vessels and was the first to weaken Spain 
by attacking her onjhe sea. 



22 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Other Explorers. — Among other explorers may be men- 
tioned Cortereal, a Portuguese, who explored the coast of 
Labrador in 1 500 ; Gordillo, who explored the southeastern 
coast of the United States in 1526; Verrazano, an Italian 
in the employ of the king of France, who, in 1524, cruised 
along the American coast from Cape Hatteras to Nova 
Scotia; Jacques Cartier, a Frenchman, who, in 1534, ex- 
plored the coasts about Labrador and Newfoundland, and 
the next year, in another voyage, ascended the St. Law- 
rence as far as the site of Montreal. Other explorers, 
some of whom were settlers as well, will be noticed in a 
later chapter. 

SUMMARY 

Four hundred years ago half the earth was unknown to the people of 
the other half. 

Trade between Europe and Asia had been carried on for ages. One 
route was closed by the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. 
This event led to efforts to find an " outside route " to Asia. The earth 
was believed to be a sphere, but popular fancy filled the Atlantic with 
impassable barriers. 

Christopher Columbus, an Italian sent by Spain, discovered the New 
World in 1492, landing at the Bahama Islands. 

. Many voyages to the new lands followed the discovery of Columbus. 
John Cabot, an Italian in the service of England, was the first to dis- 
cover continental America (1497). Many years later England laid 
claim to all of North America on the ground of the Cabot discovery. 

Americus Vespucius, an Italian in the service of Spain, wrote an 
account of Brazil, which he had visited, and was honored by having the 
New World called by his name. 

Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, and called it the South Sea, and 
Ponce de Leon discovered Florida (1513). 

Magellan made the first voyage round the globe, and Cortez conquered 
Mexico (1519-1521). 

Narvaez, in 1528, explored Florida with four hundred men. He and 
all his men, except De Vaca and three companions, were lost. 

Coronado, with an army of eleven hundred, started in search of the 



CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS 23 

^^sev-en cities'' in 1540 and traversed the plains west of the Mississippi 
to the valley of the Piatt River. 

De SCO led a fine a,-™y of six hundred men to Flor.da m ,539, -dm a 

wanderin.. tour of several years discovered the Mississippi River (154.). 

M in'Frobisher made a voyage to the waters north of Labrador in 

,576, and Francis Drake, in ,580. completed his great voyage round the 

world, the second in history. 

REFERENCES 
TNOTF Tlie books and other references cited at the ends of the chapters of 
,his^'sror;;:;e'c'rrefuny chosen accounts that - -"-.^itf i "l". gWet^ th" 
hotne »--'« and are s.tah e <^^r>^'^ ^JJ- ^f ^^^..^ ,He' index. 
kT^y'^^itthouM ain:» reld Ire o^n any i.p^rtan. subject than is given ,n th.s 
text-book.] 

Elson. " History of the United States " ; HarU " Source Book " ; Hig- 
.inson, " Larger History," Vol. 1 ; Thwaites. •• The Colonies , Adam , 
r^ Christopher Columbus " ; Fiske, ■' The Discovery of America, Vol. I. 

NOTE 

afterward carried on by Spain for hundreds of years. In one ot nis voyag 
u'sZ" ^sTd'that Jo,Lh„s sailed far ' V'^^r dtct^ ri^orLT rtl;- 

■-•^"''tur;:rhrx'er««riirct~de^ 

Teni t'lr^rSs Fio^enlne astronomer and .-|.apherbut^ recent tnvesttga- 
tions seem to indicate that this view is erroneous. After Columbus s death, his , y 
::;:•: the cathedra, at Sevihe ti„ about .54. wiien it was removed o mo 
Domingo, Haiti. When that island was transferred to France m 1795, 
was removed to Havana, Cuba, and in 1898, ^8"" back .0 Spam ThejJ 
reason to believe, however, that when the removal from Haiti was "^^e thew , 
sarcophagus was taken ; and if so, the remains of the great discoverer stil, test 
Haiti. 



CHAPTER II 
THE INDIAN 



The most wonderful thing discovered by the Europeans 
when they first came to America was the new race of their 
own human kind. Here was a race hitherto unknown to 
civiHzed man, scattered thinly from ocean to ocean and 
from Alaska to Patagonia. 




''^?:?^ 



The natives, who came to be called Indians, were a bar- 
barous people, many of them nomadic, Hving chiefly by 




hunting and fishing. They used the bow and arrow, but 
had not learned the use of firearms ; they had domesticated 

24 



INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS 



25 



the dog, but not the horse. It requires a vastly greater 
land area to support a people from the natural products of 
forest and stream than to support a people who till the 
soil. The Indian population was therefore never great, 
never perhaps more than half a million at any one time, 
within the area of the United States. 

How the Indians came to inhabit America, and how 
many ages they had dwelled here before the coming of the 
white man, will probably never be known, as they had not 




recorded their own history. It is needless to give our 
space to the many conjectures as to the origin of the race. 
Indian Characteristics. — In color the typical Indian is 
cinnamon brown ; he has high cheek bones, small dark 
eyes, straight, raven-black hair, and scanty beard. The 
race resembles the Mongolian more than any other. Phys- 
ically the Indian was equal to any other race, mentally 
he was weak and he was strong, ^ — a child as well as a 
man. He was a child in the simplicity of his tastes and of 

1 This refers to the Indian three hundred years ago when the Europeans 
first made settlements on our soil. 



26 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



his wants, a man in his cunning, his power of endurance, 
and the range of his passions. He dwelled in the vast 
soUtudes of nature with his family and kindred in apparent 
contentment. He chased the deer and the buffalo with a 
fleetness unknown to other men ; he strove with his enemy 
in battle ; his rude song resounded from hill to hill. 

Indian Home Life — The great majority of the Indians 
lived in wdgwams, or movable tents, which were adorned 
with human scalps or trophies of the chase. There were 




exceptions to this rule. The Iroquois of New York, the 
Pueblos of the Southwest, the Aztecs of Mexico, and the 
Incas of South America had more substantial houses and 
were less nomadic in their habits than most of the tribes. 

The Indian warrior, when not engaged in war or in the 
chase, usually slept or smoked during the day, and at even- 
ing he would sit with his family and friends and tell over the 
legends and myths of his tribe that had been handed down 
from generation to generation, or he would dilate on his own 
deeds of valor in the chase or on the battlefield. His 



INDIAN RELIGION 



27 



squaw would spend the day dressing skins, doing bead- 
work, or preparing food for the family. The children 
would play and gambol at will, and with no restraint from 
the parents. In many of the games whole communities 
would engage — men, women, and children. 

The woman did the menial work. She raised the corn, 
gathered the berries, and managed the home as seemed 
best in her eyes, 
while the man 
performed the 
less constant but 
more arduous 
duties of the 
chase and the 
battlefield. 

Family quar- 
rels were almost 
unknown. If 
the fare was 
scanty, as it 
often was, the 
man did not 
chide his wife, 
he accepted what was set before him without murmuring. 

Indian Religion. — The American Indians were all reli- 
gious, but their religion was grossly corrupted by super- 
stition. In many tribes there was some idea of a Great 
Spirit, who taught the waters to flow, and caused the 
changing of the seasons, who brought the thunders and 
the rain, and furnished daily food for his children. But 
for the most part the Indian believed only that spirits 
dwelled in animals and trees and in everything about him- 
His imagination peopled the air, the water, and the forest 




Indian Head-dress 



28 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

with living, invisible things and filled him with superstitious 
fear. He believed in signs and omens and dreams. He 
worshiped the sun and the stars, the rivers and the moun- 
tains, but seldom did he bow down to that which he had 
made with his own hands. He offered to his gods the 
best of his possessions, but only here and there did he 
offer human sacrifice. 

Most tribes believed in a future life, a " happy hunting 
ground " ; but the conscience and morals of the Indian 
were based on tribal custom, rather than on religion. His 



conscience, which he followed with the utmost precision, 
bade him be honest and kind with his own people, but 
permitted him to steal from his enemies and even to tor- 
ture them to death. ^ 

The Indian as a Hunter and Warrior. — Many of the 
Indian tribes received a partial supply of food by tilling 
the soil, by raising corn and a few other products in the 
crudest manner. Fishing was also engaged in by many ; 
but the great source of food supply was the flesh of wild 
animals taken in the forest, and to capture these animals 
with his imperfect means the Indian hunter displayed a 

1 See Elson's " History of the United States " for a fuller description of 
the Indian character. 



THE INDIAN AS A HUNTER AND WARRIOR 



29 



skill that was astonishing. He had a wonderful knowledge 
of the haunts and habits of the denizens of the woods ; he 
could follow a trail with the keenness of a bloodhound ; 
he could imitate the bark of the wolf, the hoot of the owl, 
and the whistle of a bird, and deceive those creatures in 
their own abodes.^ 

In war the Indian was daring and brave, but he would 
not fight an enemy fairly if he could surprise and assassin- 
ate him. He would lurk in a ravine, or a dark shadow, and 




leap upon his foe, uttering at the same instant a yell so 
piercing that no one who ever heard it could forget it to 
the end of his life.^ 

In battle the Indians followed no particular rules. Each 
brave did what seemed right in his eyes. In power of 
endurance and capacity for suffering the Indian surpassed 
all other men. He could travel on foot without food 
for hundreds of miles. When captured by an enemy, 
he would suffer himself to be tortured to death without 
permitting a cry to escape his lips. Indians often tortured 

i McMaster's " History of the People of the United States," Vol. I, p. 6. 
2 Ibid., p. 7. 



30 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

their enemies when captured ; but under ordinary con- 
ditions the Indians were not cruel. 

Civilization. — The Indians have shown Httle capacity 
for civiHzation. Some tribes, as the Iroquois and Aztecs, 
were advanced above the barbarous stage ; but with the 
great majority this was not true, and ages of contact with 
the most enlightened race have wrought little change 
in Indian culture. The race seems content with its mode 
of life of long ago ; it makes no effort to improve or to 
become a world force. 




Home L 



The Indian languages are laden with poetic beauty ; but 
no Indian has written a poem that will live ; no Indian has 
invented a machine, or founded a school, or established a 
printing press. 

The Indian is not at ease in the centers of civilization ; he 
pines for his forest home. The hum of industry in the great 
city has no charm for the Indian. He prefers to hear the 
scream of the wild bird, the howl of the wolf, the soughing 
of the wind amon^c the trees. He is not educated and 



RELATIONS OF THE INDIANS AND COLONISTS 31 

does not wish to be. He does not desire to know about 
the great world beyond his home in the wilderness. He 
does not know his own age ; he notes the changes of the 
seasons and counts time by the moon ; but how many 
moons ago since he was born, or since his children were 
born, he does not know and he does not care.^ 

Relations of the Indians and the Colonists. — Frequently 
during the colonial period the Indians and white settlers 
were at enmity and many were the wars between them. 
The wars were usually caused by an encroaching of the 
settlers on lands claimed by the red men, or by fraudulent 
practices of dishonest white traders. 

More frequently, however, the relations between the 
two races were pleasant. The Indians learned much from 
their white neighbors — the use of the horse, of firearms, 
and of various kinds of tools — by which their means of 
gaining a livelihood were made easier ; but they did not 
generally absorb" the higher civilization of the settlers. 

On the other hand, the settlers learned much from the 
Indians. They learned how to raise corn, a cereal then un- 
known in Europe, how to make maple sugar, and how to tan 
skins. It was thus through the aid of their dusky neigh- 
bors that they obtained a plentiful supply of food and were 
at length enabled to engage in a lucrative fur trade with 
England. 

The colonists were also greatly benefited by the Indi- 
ans' knowledge of the waterways and by Indian trails. 
Ages of tramping of the red men through the forests 
had worn trails which became very useful to the colo- 
nists in their communication with one another. The first 
roads and turnpikes were usually built on the linesof the 
Indian trails. 

1 Elson's History (one-volume edition), p. 37. 



32 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Nations and Tribes 

The Indians of North America were divided into several 
great families, distinguished by language, habits, and per- 
sonal appearance, and each family was composed of many 
different tribes. 

One of the most prominent families was the Iroquois, 
Hving for the most part in New York. Some of the tribes, 

however, extended 
into Canada, the 
Ohio Valley, and 
the South. They 
built connected log 
houses, fortified 
their villages, and 
cultivated the soil. 
They were noted for 
physical strength, 
courage, and their 
warlike propensi- 
ties. Five tribes of 
the Iroquois, the Ca- 
yugas,^ Mohawks, 
Oneidas, Ononda- 
gas, and Senacas, were banded together in a confederation 
known as the Five Nations, and after being joined by the 
Tuscaroras in 1714, were called the Six Nations. In addi- 
tion to these the Fries, Hurons, Cherokees, and a few other 
tribes belonged to the Iroquois. 

By far the greatest Indian family in North America, 
measured by the extent of territory occupied, was the 
Algonquin family. They surrounded the Iroquois on all 

^ The pupil should not attempt to commit the names of all the tribes. 




A Typical Indian Face 



NATIONS AND TRIBES 33 

sides, extending from Labrador westward through British 
America to the base of the Rocky Mountains and south- 
ward to South Carolina. They also extended westward 
through the Mississippi Valley to the Rocky Mountains. 
The most important tribes of the Algonquins were the 
Massachuset, Mohegan, Sac and Fox, Ojibwa, Blackfoot, 
Shawnee, Miami, Illinois, and Lenni Lenape. Most of the 
famous Indians of our history, as King PhiHp, Pocahontas, 
Pontiac, and Tecumseh were Algonquins. This nation com- 
pared favorably with the Iroquois in every way. Both had 
advanced above the state of barbarism and showed an 
interesting incipient civihzation. Their highest accom- 
plishments were the raising of corn and the making of 
pottery. There are at present near one hundred thousand 
Algonquins and about forty thousand Iroquois living on 
various reservations. Many of them are self-supporting, 
living mostly by agriculture; but in general civilization 
they have not advanced greatly beyond the state in which 
they were first discovered. 

The Athabascans were another great family, which ex- 
tended from the Arctic regions to Mexico, mostly west of 
the Rocky Mountains. They were divided into many 
tribes, including the warlike Apaches, the Atna and Kuchin 
of Alaska, the Navajos of Arizona and New Mexico, the 
Beavers and Slaves of British America. The Dakota 
or Sioux family occupied that portion of the United States 
west of the Great Lakes about the head waters of the 
Mississippi, the Yellowstone Valley, and the adjacent 
portions of British America. Among them we find the 
Crows, Assiniboines, lovvas, Mandans, Omahas, Osages. 
and Winnebagoes ; about forty-five thousand of them still 
exist. 

The Muskogi family were among the most cultured and 



34 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES .= 

industrious of Indians. They built good houses and culti- 
vated the soil. The leading tribes were the Creeks, 
Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Seminoles, occupying for the 
most part the southern portions of the United States. 

The Shoshone family included the semicivilized Aztecs 
of Mexico, the Comanches, the Snakes, the Utes, the 
Mokis, and many other tribes. 

REFERENCES 

Brinton, " Myths of the New World'' ; Dodge, "Our Wild Indians" ; 
Ellis, " The Red Man and the White Man'''; Helen Hunt Jackson, "A 
Century of Dishonor." 

NOTE 

The Mound Builders. — In various parts of the country, especially in the Ohio 
Valley, are found curious mounds, embankments of earth and stone, that repre- 
sent a prehistoric age. It was long believed that these were made by a race of 
" Mound Builders," who inhabited the country before the Indians. It is now be- 
lieved by careful students of the subject that the mounds were built in a remote age 
by various Indian tribes, and that the race of " Mound Builders " is mythical. 
The mounds, more than twelve thousand of which are found in Ohio alone, are in 
the shape of cones, pyramids, circles, or of some wild animal. Some of them are 
small ; others are several miles in extent. Their uses no doubt were various. 
Some of them seem to have been forts, others were burial places or designed for 
religious purposes. Within them have been found human skeletons and various 
kinds of rude implements of war or of domestic use. One of the most interesting 
of these mounds is the Serpent Mound in Adams County, Ohio. It represents the 
figure of a gigantic serpeftt, twelve hundred feet long, with wide-open mouth, and 
in the act of swallowing an oval figure that resembles an egg. 



CHAPTER III 
COLONIZATION ; THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

The new world had been discovered a hundred years 
and more before any permanent colony of importance was 
planted by white men on the soil of the United States. 
North America presented wonderful opportunities for 
future development — millions of square miles of fertile 
soil, unlimited forests of valuable timbers, and a mineral 
wealth beneath the surface that would require centuries 
to unfold. It was only through colonization that this vast 
and beautiful land could become useful to mankind. The 
time was now ripe for such a movement to begin, and the 
question was. Which of the European nations will become 
the mother of civilization in North America ? 

The chances all seemed to favor Spain. Spain had 
taken possession of Central America and South America,^ 
and she laid claim to the whole of North America. At 
the opening of the seventeenth century Spain was the 
richest nation of the world. Mexican and Peruvian gold 
had poured into Spanish coffers in uncounted millions, and 

1 Except the eastern portion which belonged to Portugal. The Spanish 
claims on North America were based on the right of discovery, on the 
explorations of De Soto, Coronado, and others, and on a decree of the Pope 
of 1493 giving all the land west of a line three hundred and seventy leagues 
west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands to Spain, and all east of that 
line to Portugal. This is known as the " Line of Demarcation." England 
claimed North America on the ground of the Cabot discoveries, while the 
French claims, coming later, were based on extensive French explorations 
to be noticed hereafter. 

35 



36 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

owing to her mad search for gold, Spain was ill-fitted to 
build colonies and advance civilization. 

Both England and France disputed the right of Spain 
to North America, but both had long been rent with 
internal struggles and religious wars and for many years 
they had given little attention to the new lands beyond 
the sea. At length the long reign of Queen Elizabeth 
( 1 558-1603) brought internal peace to England and raised 
the nation to a first-class power. England then stood 
forth to dispute with Spain her dominion of the seas and 
her extravagant claims to North America. 

Spain then made a mighty effort to crush the daring- 
Briton. PhiHp II sent forth the ''Invincible "Armada. It 
consisted of one hundred and thirty ships bearing thirty 
thousand men and three thousand heavy guns. In a 
grand crescent, seven miles in extent, the Armada ap- 
proached the British Isles in May, 1588. The English 
rose to the occasion. They raised a great army, and in 
a series of battles the Spanish fleet was disabled. Many 
of the ships were destroyed, thousands of the soldiers 
perished, and never since then has Spain regained her 
prestige on the sea. The defeat of the Spanish Armada 
weakened Spain and opened the way for English colon- 
ization in America. 

Early Attempts at Settlement 

French and Spanish Colonies. — Coligny, the great 
leader of the French Protestants, called Huguenots, sent 
Jean Ribault, who founded a small colony at Port Royal 
on the coast of South Carolina (1562). Ribault sailed 
away leaving thirty men to hold the country for France. 
But after a short, miserable experience, the men were 



FRENCH AND SPANISH COLONIES 



37 



picked up by an English vessel and carried to England. ^ 
Two years after the settlement at Port Royal was made, a 
French colony was founded on the St. John's River in 
Florida, and was called Fort Caroline, after King Charles 
IX of France.'-^ 

The next year (1565) the king of Spain sent Pedro 
Menendez to found a colony in Florida and to drive out 
the French. Menendez founded St. Augustine, the oldest 
town in the United States, and the same year he proceeded 




St. Augustine. 

to Fort CaroHne, and massacred almost all the French 
settlers. 

A fearful retribution awaited the Spaniards for this 
act of cruelty. De Gourgues, a wealthy Frenchman, 
sailed to PTorida, in 1568, to avenge his countrymen. He 
fell on three Spanish forts near St. Augustine, and slew 
every man in the garrisons. The French now abandoned 

1 The French had attempted, as early as 1540, to found a colony on the 
St. Lawrence; but this effort had also resulted in failure. 

2 Caroline or Carolina is from Carolus, the Latin for Charles. 



38 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Florida to Spain. In 1582 the Spaniards founded Santa 
Fe, New Mexico, which is the second oldest town in our 
country. These two settlements, at St. Augustine and 
Santa Fe, were the only white settlements at this time in 
the territory of the United States. 

English Attempts at Settlements. — Even before the 
defeat of the Spanish Armada, the English had made 

attempts at planting 
colonies in America. 
The first to do this was 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 
Receiving a charter, that 
is, written permission, 
from Queen Elizabeth, 
he sailed with a band 
of colonists for New- 
foundland. The at- 
tempt proved a failure ; 
Gilbert lost his life 
by shipwreck, and his 
mantle fell on the 
shoulders of his famous 
half-brother. Sir Walter 
Raleigh. 

Raleigh was one of the leading men of his times, a 
scholar and a statesman, a navigator and a soldier. He 
was a great favorite with England's queen and she granted 
him a charter to found a colony in America, similar to 
that of Gilbert. In 1584 Raleigh sent two vessels to ex- 
plore the coast of North America. They landed at Roa- 
noke Island, North Carolina. The explorers found the 
natives gentle and kind, and the climate delightful. Re- 
turning to England, they gave a glowing report of the 




Sir Walter Raleigh. 



ENGLISH ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENTS 



39 



enchanting land .they had visited. At this time the name 
<* Virginia," was given to the new lands, in honor of Eliza- 
beth, the virgin queen. This name was first used to desig- 




Return of Governor White to Roanoke Island. 



nate all the eastern portion of the present United States 
except Florida. 

Raleigh now determined to plant a colony in Virginia. 
In 1585 he sent Ralph Lane with one hundred and eight 
men, who settled on Roanoke Island. But after a year 



40 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of hardship they were carried back to England bv Sir 
Francis Drake, who stopped at Roanoke on one of his 
voyages. They brought back with them tobacco and the 
potato and first introduced their use in England. 

Raleigh was disappointed, but not discouraged. In 
1587 he sent a colony of one hundred and fifty, seventeen 
of whom were women, under John White. Soon after they 
landed at Roanoke Virginia Dare was born. She was a 
grandchild of Governor White and was the first English 
child born on the soil of the United States. Governor 
White went back to England, intending to return soon to 
his colony ; but a war with Spain and the coming of the 
Armada prevented his return, and three years passed 
before another English vessel reached Roanoke. Then it 
was too late, for when at last help came, the colony had 
disappeared. Not a trace of it was ever found. ^ It has 
been called " The lost colony of Roanoke." Though 
Raleigh was not successful in colony planting, he awak- 
ened a great interest in the subject in England, and did 
more than any other man except John Cabot to secure 
North America to the English race.^ 

Virginia, 1607 

First Permanent Settlement; London and Plymouth 
Companies. — The first permanent EngHsh settlement in 
America was Virginia, settled in 1607. Before this the 
attempts at settlement had been made by individuals ; 

1 Except the word " Croatan " carved on the bark of a tree. This was the 
name of a near-by island. Many years later children with light hair were 
found among the Indians. It was believed that they were the descendants 
of members of the lost colony, adopted by the Indians. 

'^ See note on Raleigh, p. 65. 



FOUNDING OF JAMESTOWN 41 

now an attempt is made by a company, a collection of 
individuals. 

In 1606 King James I, the successor of Elizabeth, 
chartered two companies — the London and Plymouth 
companies. Each was granted the right to found a colony 
which was to be governed by a council appointed by the 
king. Each was given a block of land one hundred miles 
square on the Atlantic coast in North America and the 
settlements were to be at least one hundred miles apart. 
The Plymouth Company made an attempt to found a 
colony on the coast of Maine, but it was not successful. It 
was the London Company that settled Virginia. We now 
use the word "Virginia" in its narrower sense, and not to 
designate the whole coast, as at first. 

Founding of Jamestown. — In December, 1606, a party 
of one hundred and five men in three small ships set out 
on the wintry sea for America. A famous sea captain, 
Christopher Newport, commanded the largest vessel, the 
Susan Constant, of a hundred tons. In the early spring 
they reached Chesapeake Bay, and, entering one of the 
rivers emptying into the bay, they gave it the name of 
their king, and sailing up the river some thirty miles, 
founded a town and called it after the name of King James 
(May 17, 1607).! 

They soon had a few tents and cabins erected ; but some 
found a dwelling place by burrowing into the ground. 
For a church they stretched a piece of canvas between 

1 Other unsuccessful attempts to colonize the coast were as follows : In 
1602 Bartholomew Gosnold, one of Raleigh's captains, sailed to Cape Cod 
and Buzzards Bay, intending to found a cokny, but failed to do so. In 1603 
Martin Bring made a voyage to New England ; a son of Humphrey Gilbert 
sailed to Chesapeake Bay and was killed by the Indians. In 1605 Captain 
Weymouth made a voyage to the Kennebec River and returned with five 
Indians. 



42 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

two trees, and beneath this canvas the Rev. Robert Hunt 
conducted divine service. The men who founded James- 
town were ill fitted for the business of colony building. 
A few were laborers and tradesman, but more than fifty 
were ''gentlemen," as they said; that is, men of no occu- 
pation, men who did not realize that years of hard work 




Ruins of Jamestown. 

would be required to make their settlement successful. 
There was not a farmer among them. Many brought 
pickaxes, expecting to find gold. 

The colony was soon in a pitiable condition. The men 
were in constant fear of the Indians ; they were attacked 
by fevers, and their rations ran so low that each man re- 
ceived only a pint of worm-eaten barley a day. Some- 



JOHN SMITH 



43 



times three or four died in a single night and before the 
end of September half the little colony had found a grave 
in the wilderness. Captain Newport had returned to Eng- 
land, and no doubt the whole colony would have perished 
but for the energy of one man — John Smith. 

John Smith. — One of the most notable characters of 
colonial America was John Smith, who came as one 
of the first settlers at 
Jamestown. Smith had, 
according to his own 
story, a record of adven- 
ture that was remarka- 
ble. Though a young 
man of twenty-seven 
when he reached Virginia 
his life had been full of 
adventure and romance ; 
yet it remained for his 
sojourn in the American 
wilderness to furnish the 
crowning romance of his 
life.i 

Pocahontas. — One day 
as John Smith was explor- 
ing the forest he was cap- 
tured by the Indians. 
He was condemned to be put to death, and his head 
was laid on the block when an Indian girl named Poca- 
hontas, daughter of the chief, rushed forward and begged 
that his life be spared. Her request was granted and 
Smith was permitted to return to his people. Some doubt 
this story. But such occurrences were not uncommon 

1 See note on John Smith, p. 66. 




Captain John Smith. 



44 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

among the Indians, and there is reason to believe that 
the story is true. 

After this, Pocahontas often came to Jamestown and 
after she grew to womanhood she married one of the col- 
onists — John Rolfe, a widower. She accompanied her 
husband to England and was received with great favor. 
She died in England after giving birth to a son, who after- 
ward made Virginia his home. 

Starving Time; Lord Delaware. — John Smith soon be- 
came governor of the colony. He put the men to work; 
he traded with the Indians for corn ; he saved the men 
from starvation. Other colonists had come, and in 1609 
when Smith returned to England, there were five hundred. 
Again the colony was to pass through a dreadful experience. 
The Indians were again hostile, and would sell them no 
more corn. The " starving time" came. Men wandered 
about with blanched faces, actually dying for food. So 
frightful was the death rate that, of the five hundred left 
by Smith in the autumn, but sixty remained alive in the 
spring. Lord Delaware had been appointed governor of 
Virginia and had embarked from England with nine ships. 
He was delayed many months by storms. Meantime the 
few colonists who were yet alive decided to embark for 
England in the few little boats which they had. Down 
the James they sailed with sad hearts. They looked out 
into the bay and behold, a moving speck, and another and 
another. They waited and up the bay swept the fleet of 
Lord Delaware. 

He picked up the forlorn Virginians, and together they 
returned to Jamestown to begin all over again. Delaware 
returned to England the next year and Sir Thomas Dale 
was made governor. Dale was a good but very strict 
governor. He remained five years and put the colony on 



TOBACCO 



45 



its feet. Never after this was the colony in want for food. 
Before the coming of Governor Dale the men had all 
worked in common for the company, and the industrious 
had no advantage over the idle. But Dale changed this 
by giving each man a plot of three acres on which he 




Lord Delaware's Ships meeting the Coloinists. 



might work for himself a portion of each year. The 
change proved to be a very beneficial one. 

Tobacco. — Tobacco was an American plant and though 
unknown in Europe before the discovery of America, its 
use had spread to nearly all countries by the time that 
Jamestown was settled. In England it was considered 
not only a luxury, but also a cure for many ills, and both 
men and women were eager to smoke tobacco. 



46 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

In 1 71 2 John Rolfe, who afterward married Pocahontas, 
began to cultivate tobacco in Virginia. The other planters 
soon followed his example, and as tobacco found a ready- 
sale in England, it became the chief product of export 
from Virginia. Everybody raised tobacco ; it was even 
grown in the streets of Jamestown, and by law it was made 
the money of the colony. All public officers and ministers 
were paid their salaries in tobacco. In a few years the 
raising of the weed became so popular that the people 
neglected to raise grain. Another law was then passed 
to compel the planters to raise corn as well as tobacco. 
In the years that followed thousands of immigrants came 
to Virginia for the purpose of growing tobacco, and it was 
this industry that insured the success of the colony. 

The Burgesses; Slaves, 1619. — Sir George Yeardley 
became governor of Virginia in 16 19, and was one of 
the best governors the colony ever had. A new charter 
had been granted the London Company (which came to 
be called the Virginia Company) in 1609, greatly enlarging 
the boundaries of the colony. A third charter was granted 
in 161 2. By this charter the company was given the sole 
power of governing the colony, and of extending this 
power to the colonists themselves. In 16 19 this power 
was granted the people, and they elected twenty-two men 
to form a legislature. The body was known as the House 
of Burgesses. Before this the people had no part in their 
own government ; but now they were soon living under 
laws of their own making. This was the beginning of self- 
government in America, and the principle has expanded 
until we are the greatest self-governing people in history. 

This same year (1619) witnessed the beginning of 
another institution — slavery. In that year a Dutch ves- 
sel came up the James- with twenty African negroes, who 



INDIAN MASSACRES 



47 



were sold into slavery to the colonists. Thus began an 
institution which was to increase, and, many years later, 
to cause great misery and suffering, and to bring about 
bloodshed and civil war. 

Still another event makes the year of 1619 memorable 
in Vii"ginia history. This was the coming of ninety young 
women from England to become wives of the planters. 
Before this there were few women and children in Vir- 
ginia. No nation can become great unless it is founded 
on family life; and what is home without women and 
children.!^ The bachelor farmers were glad to have the 
opportunity to begin family life. In order to get one of 
these prizes the farmer had to win her consent, and to pay 
her passage across the sea — one hundred and twenty 
pounds of tobacco. Other women came from time to time, 
and family life in Virginia became firmly established. To 
the sounds of the woodman's ax, and the builder's ham- 
mer, to the lowing of the herds, and the chattering of the 
fowls were added the shouts of playing children, and forest 
life henceforth had its joys as well as its misfortunes. 

Indian Massacres. — The greatest misfortune that ever 
befell colonial Virginia was the Indian massacre of 1622. 
After the marriage of Pocahontas there was peace between 
the two races as long as her father, Powhatan, the chief, 
lived. But on his death his brother, who hated the whites, 
became the chief of the tribe. In 1622 he and his war- 
riors fell upon the colonists, and before they could be 
stopped three hundred and forty-seven of the settlers 
were killed. Twenty-two years after this (1644) the same 
chief, now an aged man, instituted another massacre, and 
over two hundred whites were killed. At this time the 
chief was taken captive, and was soon after slain by one of 
his own people. 



48 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Virginia beT!t)mes a Royal Colony, 1624. — A royal 
colony is one that is directly under the care of the king, 
and not of a company or proprietor. King James was not 
pleased with the company's management of Virginia. He, 
therefore, revoked the charter, and made Virginia a royal 
colony. So it remained to the War of the Revolution. 
The king appointed the governor, and the people con- 
tinued to elect the burgesses. The people thus continued 
to make the laws, and the king reserved the right to veto 
them, but seldom did so. 

Sir William Berkeley. — The longest rule of one man 
in the history of the thirteen colonies was that of Sir 
William Berkeley, who was governor of Virginia from 1642 
to 1677, with the exception of an interval of a few years. 
Berkeley was a rough man, with a hot temper and a nar- 
row mind. 

About the time he became governor a fierce rehgious 
war broke out in England. King Charles I was at the 
head of the High Church party, who were called Cavaliers. 
The other party was composed of Puritans, who were 
called Roundheads, from the way in which they cut their 
hair. The Puritan party was led by Oliver Cromwell. It 
gained a complete victory over the Cavalier party, and in 
1649 King Charles was beheaded. Berkeley took the side 
of the king in the EngUsh war, and when the other party 
triumphed, he ceased to be governor, and Virginia was left 
to govern itself for several years. 

Tlie English war had one important permanent effect 
on Virginia. It caused many of the Cavahers, after being 
defeated by the Puritans, to migrate to Virginia. Among 
these new immigrants were the ancestors of George Wash- 
ington, of James Madison, of James Monroe, of John Mar- 
shall, and of many of the *' First Famihes of Virginia." 



THE RESTORATION 



49 



The Restoration, 1660 — Oliver Cromwell, under the title 
of Lord Protector, was master of England for some years, 
known as the period of the Commonwealth. But soon 
after his death Charles II became king-. This is known as 
the Restoration. There was also a restoration in Virginia. 
Berkeley was restored to the governorship. The cross old 
governor now became more tyrannical than ever. He had 
little respect for the people, and he refused for fifteen years 
to permit them to elect a new house of burgesses. He was 
an enemy to free schools, because he believed that educa- 
tion made the people more independent. In 1671 he wrote 
to his superiors in England, " I thank God there are no free 
schools nor printing, and I hope we shall not have these 
hundred years." 

Berkeley was not only a tyrant, he was dishonest and 
enriched himself fraudulently through the Indian fur 
trade. But at length he came to grief. 

Bacons Rebellion. — When the Indians became hostile, 
Berkeley refused to protect the white people in the fear 
that the fur trade would be disturbed. The people there- 
upon chose Nathaniel Bacon, an eloquent young lawyer, to 
lead them against the Indians. The governor was so 
incensed at this that he started with troops in pursuit of 
Bacon and his men. But the people then rose in large 
numbers against Berkeley and he hastened back to James- 
town to placate them. This he could do only by permitting 
a new election of the burgesses, which he did. Bacon was 
elected as one of the burgesses, who then passed a series 
of laws known as Bacon's laws. , 

The governor again became angry and pronounced 
Bacon a traitor. Bacon then raised another army, marched 
upon Jamestown, and burned it to the ground. The irate 
old governor, pointing to his breast, shouted to Bacon, 

E 



50 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



"Shoot me, shoot me." But Bacon did not wish to shoot 
him ; he wished only to gain more Hberty for the people 

of Virginia. This 
rebellion took place 
in 1676, just one 
hundred years be- 
fore the Revolu- 
tion. 

It was not long, 
however, till Bacon 
died of swamp fever, 
and Berkeley was 
again master of Vir- 
ginia. He hanged 
about twenty of 
Bacon's followers. 
So cruel was he 
that King Charles 
was displeased and 
recalled him to Eng- 
land.^ Here Berke- 
ley died soon after- 
ward, of a broken 
heart, it was said, 
because the king 
refused to see him. 
Development of Virginia. — After Bacon's Rebellion 
Virginia was to remain a royal colony for a hundred years. 
During this period it prospered greatly, in spite of several 
worthless governors. By the end of the seventeenth cen- 
tury one hundred thousand people had made their homes 

1 " The old fool has taken more lives in that naked country than I have 
taken for the murder of my father," said Charles. 




The Quarrel between Berkeley and Bacon. 



GEORGE AND CECIL CALVERT 51 

in Virginia. These were nearly all English; but in 1700 
several hundred Huguenots, or French Protestants, came 
to the colony. About 1730 the Scotch-Irish began to 
settle in large numbers in the Shenandoah Valley, and 
soon after this the Germans came. The frontier was 
moved back until it had crossed the Alleghanies. Thus 
the various nationalities, blending slowly into one people, 
spent the remainder of the colonial period hewing away 
the forest and laying the foundations of a great state. 

Maryland, 1634 

Maryland was not the second to be founded of the 
thirteen original colonies, but it was the second of the 
southern group, and for that reason it is given here. For 
two reasons Maryland is remembered among her sisters. 
It was the first of the proprietary colonies and it was the 
first to grant religious freedom. 

The experiments of Gilbert and Raleigh in colony 
building were individual experiments ; the founding of 
Virginia was by a company. In Maryland we have the 
first proprietary colony ; that is, a colony governed and 
practically owned by a lord proprietor. 

George and Cecil Calvert. — The father of Maryland 
was George Calvert ; the actual founder was his son, Cecil 
Calvert. George Calvert was a prominent Roman Cath- 
olic of England, a man of broad sympathies and stanch 
character. The king raised him to a peerage with the 
title of Lord Baltimore. As the CathoHc people were at 
this time the objects of persecution in England, Baltimore 
determined to found a colony for them in America. First 
he took a band of settlers to Newfoundland ; but the 
climate proving too severe, he proceeded to Virginia. 



52 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



But the Virginians were intolerant of Catholics and Balti- 
more returned to England. 

King Charles then granted him a large tract north of 
Virginia and named it Maryland in honor of his wife 

Henrietta Maria. 
The new colony 
was bounded on 
the south by the 
Potomac River, 
on the north by 
the fortieth par- 
allel, and it ex- 
tended from the 
Atlantic Ocean 
westward to the 
source of the 
Potomac. This 
included the 
present state of 
Delaware and 
portions of Penn- 
sylvania and 
West Virginia. 
The charter 
required that the proprietor send two Indian arrows to the 
king each year, as a token of allegiance, and if any gold 
and silver were mined in the colony, one fifth of it was to 
be sent to the king. 

The power granted the proprietor was almost kingly. 
He could coin money, establish courts, wage war, and 
grant titles of nobility ; but he could not tax the people 
without their consent. But George Calvert died before 
he could carry his project into execution. The charter 




Lord Baltimore. 



FIRST SETTLEMENT IN MARYLAND 53 

was then granted to his son Cecil, who proceeded to carry 
out the project of his father. 

The First Settlement. — The first settlers, about three 
hundred in number, reached an island in the mouth of 
the Potomac in March, 1634. They purchased the land of 
the Indians, paying them in axes, hoes, and cloth. On this 
island they founded a town and named it St. Mary's. In 
six months the colony had made more progress than 
Virginia had made in as many years after its founding. 
The first governor of Maryland was Leonard Calvert, a 
brother of the proprietor. 

Clayborne William. — For many years after the found- 
ing of Maryland there was an unfriendly feeling between 
that colony and Virginia. At length it broke into open 
warfare with William Clayborne as the chief figure. 
Clayborne, a Virginian, had established a trading post on 
Kent Island in the Chesapeake, and this island was 
included in the charter of Maryland. Clayborne now 
refused to come under the control of Maryland and for 
more than ten years there was strife. Many men were 
killed in the frequent skirmishes between the contending 
parties. At length Maryland gained permanent control of 
Kent Island. 

Religious Toleration. 1649. — The Calverts were Cath- 
olics, and one of their objects in founding a colony was to 
furnish an asylum for oppressed Catholics in England ; but 
they also admitted Protestants into Maryland, and even of 
the first settlers many were Protestants. In practice the 
people enjoyed religious freedom, but there was no law to 
guarantee this freedom before 1649. 

In that year the Toleration Act was passed. By this 
law all Christian sects, except Unitarians, were guaranteed 
freedom to worship God in their own way in Maryland. 



54 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The act was a very liberal one for those days, but would 
not be considered liberal in our times. It provided severe 
penalties for denying a belief in the Trinity, and for other 
causes. 

In later years, however, Maryland had its full share of 
religious strife. Many Puritans, driven from Virginia by 
the tyranny of Berkeley, came to Maryland. At length 
they gained control of Maryland, when they passed a law 
against the Catholics ; but later the Toleration Act was 
again put in force. 

Government of Maryland. — A short time after Mary- 
land was founded the people were making their own laws. 
The charter gave the proprietor a great deal of power ; but 
as he could not tax them without their consent they were 
soon in position to demand of him almost anything they 
wanted. Their one weapon was a withholding of supplies 
and that was usually effective. The population increased 
rapidly. The Quakers, the Dutch, the Germans, and the 
Huguenots came to join the EngHsh in Maryland, and the 
colony was prosperous and happy. 

In 169 1, when William and Mary were the sovereigns of 
England, Maryland became a royal colony; but in 171 5 it 
was restored to the Calvert family, where it remained to 
the time of the Revolution. The capital was moved in 
1694 from St. Mary's to Annapohs. The city of Baltimore 
was founded in 1730. 

North Carolina, 1653 

North Carolina came near being the first of the perma- 
nent English colonies. The lost colony of Roanoke and 
the other temporary colonies of Sir Walter Raleigh had 
settled on the coast of North CaroUna. Again, the people 



BEGINNINGS OF NORTH CAROLINA 55 

who founded Virginia had intended to settle in the vicinity 
of Roanoke, but a storm changed their course and led 
them to the valley of the James. 

Beginnings of North Carolina.^ — The first settlements in 
North Carolina that were destined to live were made in 
1653 by Virginians on the banks of the Chowan and 
Roanoke rivers, in a district called Albemarle, in honor of 
the Duke of Albemarle, one of the proprietors. A few 
years later a company from New England settled on the 
Cape Fear River. Most of them soon abandoned the 
place, and the remainder were joined by Sir John Yeamans, 
an English nobleman with broken fortunes, with a com- 
pany of planters from the Barbadoes. This was called the 
Clarendon colony, after the Earl of Clarendon, one of the 
proprietors. 

In 1663 King Charles II granted a charter to eight of 
his favorites for the vast territory south of Virginia, and 
two years later this charter was enlarged to include all the 
territory between the 29th parallel and the southern 
boundary of Virginia, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
Ocean. This grant embraced the greater part of the 
southern half of the present United States. 

The Grand Model. — One of the eight men to whom this 
grant was made was Lord Ashley Cooper, who became the 
Earl of Shaftsbury, and he, with the philosopher John 
Locke, drew up a constitution, known as the Grand Model, 
for the government of Carolina. 

This " model " proved to be grand only as a grand 
failure. It provided for aristocratic rule in the extreme. 
It divided the country into great estates to be ruled by 

1 The name Carolina had been given this territory many years before by 
Ribault (Ri-bo'), in honor of Charles IX of France ; it was now retained in 
honor of Charles 11 of England. See note on p. 36. 



56 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

earls and barons and left the people in a condition of serf- 
dom without any of the rights of self-government. But 
they were used to the unrestrained freedom of the wilder- 
ness. They refused to be governed by this model, and 
it fell to the ground. The people preferred to govern 
themselves. 

Growth of North Carolina ; Indian War. — This colony 
was not prosperous at first. The Clarendon settlement 
was abandoned and the Albemarle settlement made little 
progress. But after 1700 new settlers came in increased 
numbers. 

In 171 1 a terrible Indian war took place. Hundreds of 
the settlers fell victims of the merciless tomahawk. But 
in the end the Indians were defeated, and the Tuscarora 
tribe, which had led in the war, and whose ancestors had 
come from New York, now decided to abandon their 
southern home. In 17 14 this tribe joined the Iroquois 
in New York, known before this time as the Five Nations, 
and afterward as the Six Nations. 

About 1720 the Germans and Scotch-Irish began to 
arrive in considerable numbers, and the settlements grad- 
ually extended from the seaboard to the mountain slopes. 
The chief products at first were grain and live stock, but 
ere long the great pine forests began to yield their wealth 
and before the Revolution the chief products of the colony 
were tar, turpentine, and lumber. Most of the people 
were moral and religious, but they had little government 
and did not like to pay taxes. They had no cities, scarcely 
villages. They lived apart, scattered through the wilder- 
ness ; their highways were the rivers and bays, and their 
homes were connected by the Indian trails winding among 
the trees. Yet the people were happy in their freedom 
and contented with their isolation. 



THE ASHLEY-COOPER SETTLEMENTS 



South Carolina, 1670 



57 



Carolina was the name given the vast tract of land 
granted to the eight favorites of the king in 1663 and so 
it was called for many years. But near the close of that 
century, after settlements had been made several hundred 
miles south of the one at Albemarle, the terms North 
Carolina and South Carolina came into use. The two 
colonies, however, were not separated in government till 
1729 — three quarters of a century after the first settle- 
ment had been made at Albemarle. 

The Ashley-Cooper Settlements; Charleston. — The Ash- 
ley and Cooper rivers, which empty near together, received 
their names from Lord Ashley Cooper, one of the propri- 
etors of Carolina. The first settlers came in 1670, led by 
William Sayle, who became the first governor. The next 
year they were joined by Sir John Yeamans, whom we have 
met in North Carolina, and by some Dutch emigrants from 
New York. Yeamans brought with him about two hun- 
dred African slaves. South Carolina differs from all the 
rest of the thirteen colonies in the fact that it depended 
largely on slave labor from the beginning. 

In 1680 the city of Charleston was founded, and it grew 
to be one of the five largest cities in colonial America ; 
the only larger cities were Philadelphia, New York, Boston, 
and Baltimore. 

The Huguenots came to South CaroHna about the close 
of the century. Though coldly received at first, they soon 
proved themselves to be worthy people and were gladly 
welcomed. 

Government Indian War; Religion. — Scarcely had the 
first immigrants landed when they chose an assembly, and 
it began to frame laws on the basis of liberty. The pro- 



58 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



prietors made a 
strenuous effort 
to introduce the 
Grand Model; but 
the attempt was 
futile. The peo- 
ple breathed the 
pure air of Hberty, 
and refused to be 
trampled by the 
heel of tyranny. 

A distressing 
Indian war oc- 
curred in South 
Carolina in 171 5. 
There were vari- 
ous causes of the 
war, one of which 
was that the Span- 
iards in Florida 
stirred up the 
Indians in the 
hope of destroy- 
ing the English 
settlements. The 
Indians were, as 
usual, defeated ; 
but not until many 
sturdy, inoffen- 
sive farmers had 
perished. 

In both North 
Carolina and South 




SOUTH CAROLINA A ROYAL COLOiNY 59 

Carolina the subject of religion caused a good deal of 
trouble. The proprietors did everything in their power to 
have the Church of England established by law, though 
a large majority of the people were Dissenters. For the 
most part the proprietors succeeded, but the Dissenters 
battled for their rights of freedom of worship and their 
share in the government, and they were sustained by the 
British crown. 

South Carolina a Royal Colony 171 9; the Separation, 
1729. — So exasperating was the government under the 
proprietors, who sought only to enrich themselves by col- 
lecting rents, that the people of South Carolina appealed 
to the king to make it a royal colony. The request was 
granted in 1719. Ten years later (1729) the proprietors 
sold their interests to the king and the twin colonies were 
separated.^ Before the separation the two colonies had 
separate legislatures ; but usually the same governor ruled 
over both. From the time of separation to the end of the 
colonial era both remained royal colonies. 

Products of South Carolina; Population. — About 1693 
a sea captain gave to a South Carolina farmer a bag of 
seed rice which he had brought from Madagascar. This 
was the beginning of a great industry in the colony. The 
country produced wild rice, but this was found to be in- 
ferior to the domestic product brought from Madagascar. 

About fifty years after the introduction of rice, a young 
girl named Eliza Lucas planted on her father's farm some 
indigo seeds brought from the West Indies. So success- 
ful was the experiment that indigo soon became a rival of 
rice as the chief product of South Carolina. The raising 

1 The price paid was about ^50,000. One of the proprietors refused to sell 
and he was later granted for his share a strip of land just south of Virginia, 
thirty-six miles wide " from sea to sea." 



60 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of indigo was greatly stimulated by a bounty offered by the 
British Parliament for all the indigo shipped from the colo- 
nies to England. It was many years later that cotton 
became the chief product of South Carohna. 

Rice and indigo grow best in marshy ground, and as a 
white man could not long endure the malarial atmosphere 
of the rice swamps, slave labor was employed almost ex- 
clusively. Even among the blacks the death rate was 
very high and their ranks were constantly refilled from 
Africa. 

In 171 5 about five hundred Irish came and occupied the 
lands vacated by the Indians. But the back country was 
held by the Cherokees till 1755 when they made a treaty 
ceding it to the colonists. Soon after this a stream of 
emigration from Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Caro- 
hna was poured into South Carolina, and by 1760 the 
population was estimated at one hundred and fifty thousand, 
three fourths of whom were slaves. 



Georgia, 1733 

The last as well as the first of the thirteen Enghsh colo- 
nies planted in North America belonged to the southern 
group, and a period of one hundred and twenty-six years 
elapsed between the founding of the two, i6o7-r733. 
Georgia is distinguished from its twelve sisters for the fact 
that it was the only one which received aid in its founding 
from the British Parliament. All the others had been 
founded by individuals, by companies, or by a spontaneous 
movement of the people from other colonies. 

James Oglethorpe. — The founder of Georgia was James 
Oglethorpe, who alone of all the colony builders lived till 
after the Revolution and saw the thirteen colonies become 



THE CHARTER 



6l 




an independent nation. Oglethorpe had fought in the 
pAU-opean wars under the Duke of Marlborough. Re- 
turning to England, he 
was elected to Parliament, 
and was now one of the 
most prominent men of 
the kingdom. 

For three reasons Ogle- 
thorpe conceived the plan 
of founding a new col- 
ony : — - 

1 . To furnish a military 
barrier between the Caro- 
linas and the troublesome 
Spaniards of Florida. 

2. To offer a refuge to 
persecuted Protestants of 
Europe. 

3. To transfer the prisoners for debt in England to the 
American forest, where they might begin life anew. 

The Charter ; First Settlements. — The charter was 
granted for twenty-one years to a company of trustees for 
the country between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers, 
and westward to the " South Sea," which meant the Pacific 
Ocean. The new country was named Georgia from George 
II who had granted the charter. Oglethorpe was chosen 
governor and with thirty-five families he reached the 
mouth of the Savannah in the spring of 1733 ; and here 
on a bluff overlooking the river and the sea he founded a 
city and called it by the name of the river. 

A year later a shipload of Salzburgers, Lutheran refu- 
gees from Salzburg, Austria, a deeply religious people, 
came and, with the aid of Oglethorpe, they founded the 



jAMKs Oglethorpe. 



62 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




OTHER FACTS ABOUT GEORGIA 63 

town of Ebenezer. The governor then sailed for England, 
and returning brought more emigrants, among whom were 
John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Church, and 
his brother Charles, who came as secretary to Oglethorpe. 
The Moravians and Scotch Highlanders also came and 
sought a home in the forests of Georgia. 

In 1739, while England and Spain were at war, Ogle- 
thorpe made an expedition by sea against St. Augustine, 
but failed to take the town. Three years later when the 
Spaniards with several ships made an attack on Georgia, 
Oglethorpe defeated them by a very clever strategy. 1 

Other Facts about Georgia. — In some respects Georgia 
differed at first from the other colonies, i. Slavery and in- 
toxicating liquors were prohibited. 2. Each settler was 
allowed but a small farm which must descend in the male 
line. 3. The trustees governed the colony and the people 
were given no part in the government. 

In all these matters a majority of the people wanted a 
change, and they won. They declared that the prohibition 
of liquors drove the West India trade away from them and 
that the colony could not develop without slave labor, and 
both were at length introduced. 

In the matter of government the trustees were not very 
successful and in 1752 they gave it up. Georgia then be- 
came a royal colony after which the people elected the 

1 The story of the strategy is as follows : A Frenchman deserted from 
Oglethorpe's army and joined the Spaniards. Oglethorpe then, pretending 
that the deserter was a spy sent by himself to the enemy, sent him a letter by 
a Spanish prisoner whom he had captured. In this letter Oglethorpe ordered 
the " spy " to try to persuade the Spaniards to remain three days longer 
until a British fleet that was coming should arrive. The letter, as Oglethorpe 
expected, was delivered to the Spanish commander, who then hanged the 
PVenchman and hastened with his fleet back to Florida to escape the supposed 
English fleet. 



64 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

assembly and the king appointed the governor. The 
Church of England was made the state church, but religious 
freedom was extended to all Protestants. 

At the coming of the Revolution some fifty thousand 
people lived in the colony, about half of whom were slaves. 
The chief products were rice, indigo, and lumber, and there 
was a lucrative fur trade with the Indians. Savannah was 
the only town and it was but a wooden village. The roads 
were but Indian trails. The people lived apart and saw 
little of one another. 

SUMMARY 

America had been discovered a hundred years before any permanent 
colony of importance was planted within the area that became the 
United States. 

Spain laid claim, not only to Central and South America, but also 
to North America. France and England disputed the claims of Spain, 
but owing to internal strife they were slow in making attempts at colo- 
nization. The defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588, opened the way to 
English colonization. 

The first permanent white settlements on the soil of the United 
States were made by Spaniards at St. Augustine (1565) and Santa Fe 
(1582). The first English settlements were made by Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert on the coast of Newfoundland, and by Sir Walter Raleigh on 
the coast of North Carolina, then called Virginia (i 582-1 587). These 
were not permanent. 

Virginia. — The first permanent English settlement was made at 
Jamestown in 1607, under a charter granted in 1606 to the London 
Company. The colony would have perished but for the efforts of John 
Smith. For some years the settlers suffered great hardships and the 
colony grew but slowly. The year 1619 is marked by the first meeting 
of the burgesses, the introduction of slavery, and by the coming of 
young women to become wives of the planters. In 1624 Virginia 
becomes a royal colony. The long governorship of Berkeley was dis- 
turbed by discontent of the people which brought about Bacon's 
Rebellion, 1676. After this Virginia developed rapidly, and at the 



NOTES 65 

coming of the Revolution was the most populous of all the English 
colonies. 

Maryland. — George Calvert, a Roman Catholic nobleman, the first 
Lord Baltimore, conceived the plan of founding a colony. On his death 
the plan was carried out by his son, the second Lord Baltimore. The 
grant was made for the part of Virginia north of the> Potomac, and 
the first settlement made in 1634. The colony grew very rapidly. 
The Toleration Act was passed in 1649. Maryland became a royal 
colony in 1 691, but was restored to the proprietor in 171 5. 

North Carolina. — In 1663 King Charles gave the vast territory south 
of Virginia to eight men. The first settlement was made near Albe- 
marle Sound ten years before this (1553) by people from Virginia, and 
the second a few years later on the Cape Fear River by New England 
people. Attempts to introduce aristocratic government by means of the 
'' Grand Model ^^ did not succeed. 

South Carolina. — First settlement was made in 1670, and ten years 
later Charleston was founded. This colony depended on slave labor 
from the beginning. Huguenots in large numbers came about 1700. 
The proprietary government was so unsatisfactory that the people 
begged that it be made a royal colony. This request was granted in 
1719, and ten years later North Carolina and South Carolina were 
separated. 

Georgia. — General James Oglethorpe founded Georgia, the last of 
the thirteen colonies, in 1733, his objects being to give prisoners for 
debt another chance, to furnish a barrier between South Carolina and 
Spanish Florida, and to furnish an asylum for persecuted Protestants. 
At first slaves and strong drink were prohibited, but were later intro- 
duced. Georgia became a royal colony in 1752. 



NOTES 

Sir Walter Raleigh, born in 1552, was educated at Oxford and at the age of 
seventeen was a soldier in France aiding the Huguenots. After returning to England 
he became a favorite of Queen Elizabeth. The story is that one day when she came 
to a miry place while walking Raleigh threw his costly cloak in the mud for her to 
step on. This greatly pleased the queen. Five times Raleigh attempted to plant a 
colony in America, but none of them proved to be permanent. He succeeded, 
however, in awakening in the English people a great interest in colony planting 
and is rightly called the father of English colonization in America. After the 
death of Elizabeth, Raleigh fell into disfavor with King James I and was cast into 
F 



66 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UiNlTED STATES 

prison. After many years in prison on a charge of disloyalty and conspiracy he 
was put to death (1618). While in prison Raleigh wrote a History of the World. 

John Smith, according to his own story, had a most adventurous life. As a 
youth he served in the wars of the Netherlands. He then embarked in the Medi- 
terranean, and thrown overboard as a heretic, swam to an uninhabited island, was 
picked up by a vessel, and carried to Egypt. Next we find him in the Austrian 
army fighting the Turks. On one occasion while storming a Turkish fort he was 
chosen by lot to fight a Turkish general in single combat. He cut off the Turk's 
head and two other Turks who came out to meet him met with the same fate. At 
length Smith was captured by the Turks and sold into slavery. He slew his master 
with a fiail, donned his clothes, and escaped into the Syrian Desert. After wander" 
ing through every country of Europe he returned to his native land and soon after 
embarked for Virginia. 

REFERENCES 

Elson. '' History of the United States '^ ; Bryant and Gay, '^ History," 
Vol. I ; Thwaites, •' The Colonies "" ; Lodge, '' The English Colonies "" ; 
Wilson. " History," Vol. I ; Fiske, '' Old V^irginia and her Neighbors ; 
Eggleston, " The Transit of Civilization '" ; McCrady, '' History of South 
Carolina under Proprietary Government " ; Fisher, " Colonial Era " ; 
Doyle, '' The English in America " ; Hart, " American History told by 
Contemporaries " and '" Source Readers," 



CHAPTER IV 
COLONIZATION; NEW ENGLAND 

At the time of the foundmg of the first of the English 
colonies in America the blessings of religious liberty were 
unknown in the Christian world. For a hundred years the 
intolerant spirit of the Middle Ages had been softening, but 
another hundred years were yet to pass before one could 
stand in the broad daylight of religious liberty. 

England was one of the most enlightened countries, but 
even in England all who dissented from the Established 
Church were objects of persecution. Many there were who 
refused to conform with the Established Church. These 
were called Nonconformists, Dissenters, or Puritans. The 
Puritans were so called because they attempted to purify 
the church without leaving it, while others who separated 
from the church altogether were known as Separatists. 
The Separatists were few in numbers compared with the 
Puritans. 

The Pilgrim Fathers 

At the little town of Scrooby in Nottinghamshire, Eng- 
land, was a scattered congregation of Separatists. After 
enduring many persecutions this little band of Christians 
fled from their native land and took refuge in Holland. 
Here they dwelled for eleven years, earning their bread by 
the labor of their hands. 

But these Pilgrims, as they were now called because of 
their wanderings, were not contented in Holland. They 

67 



6S 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



were unwilling to give up their language and their customs 
for those of the Dutch, and, as the spirit of persecution 
had not abated in England, their thoughts turned to the 
wilderness of America. Securing two little vessels, the 
Speedwell and the JMayflower, they set;mut]^on their long 




The Mayflower 



journey ; but the Speedivell proved unfit for the sea and 
they embarked in the Mayfloiver alone. 

The leaders of the movement were William Brewster 
and John Carver, elderly men, and William Bradford and 
Edward Winslovv, both young men under thirty. At 
Plymouth, England, where they made a stop, they were 
joined by Captain Miles Standish, who was in sympathy 
with them though not a member of the congregation. 



LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS 



69 



The company numbered one hundred and two. One 
died on the voyage and one was born. 

Landing of the Pilgrims. — The voyage was long and 
perilous, but the prospect of a home where they could 
worship God in their own way and still be Englishmen 
filled them with courage. They had received a grant from 
the Virginia Company to settle in the Hudson Valley, but 




The Landing of the Pilgrims 



they landed on the coast of New England, and here they 
remained. 

Before landing they drew up a compact for the govern- 
ment of the colony, and chose John Carver the first gov- 
ernor. By this compact they pledged themselves *'in the 
presence of God and of one another" to frame and to obey 
such laws as they might need. 

The Mayfloiver QnV^xQ^ Cape Cod Harbor on November 
II, and an exploring party went ashore. They found 



70 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



the snow half a foot deep, and the wind blew spray from 
the sea upon them, where it froze until their " clothes 
looked like coats of iron." 

At length they chose Plymouth Harbor as a landing 
place, and the rock on which they landed has been called 
Plymouth Rock. The men were soon busy building cabins, 
returning each night to the ship where the women and 
children remained for several weeks longer. 




Plymouth Rock as it xow Appears 



The winter was long and severe, and ere the coming of 
spring more than forty of the little band had been laid in 
the grave. And yet when the Mayfloiver sailed for Eng- 
land in the spring, not one of the survivors returned with 
her. History furnishes no example of a more heroic 
people. 

The Pilgrims and the Indians. — The Indians about 
Plymouth Harbor had been swept away by a pestilence, 
and the Pilgrims saw but few during the winter. One day 
in the spring the people saw an Indian approaching them, 
crying in English, ''Welcome, Englishmen." This In- 



THE PILCxRIMS AND THE INDIANS 71 




Edward Winslow 
From the original portrait in possession of the Pilgrim Society of Plymouth 

dian, whose name was Samoset, came again a few days 
later and brought with him a friend named Squanto, who 
was to become the benefactor of the colony. 



72 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Squanto had been kidnapped some years before and 
sold into slavery. He was rescued by an Englishman, and 
from this time he was a great friend of the English. He 
now taught the colonists many things about fishing and 
raising corn. He informed them also that the great chief 
of his tribe,Massasoit, wished to make a treaty of friendship 
with them. The treaty was soon made and was faithfully 
kept by both sides for more than fifty years. Massasoit 
was chief of the Wampanoag tribe, which had a powerful 
enemy in the Narragansett tribe, whose chief was Canonicus. 
Wishing to show hostility to the new friends of his old 
enemy, Canonicus sent Governor Bradford ^ a snake skin 
filled with arrows. But when the skin was returned full of 
powder and shot, the chief decided that it were better to 
make friends of the white men and did so. 

The Plymouth colony increased slowly, but the people 
were industrious and within a few years they were living 
in comparative comfort. The American people look back 
with pride upon the sturdy Christian character of the 
founders of the nation, and it is certain that none holds a 
higher place of honor in the great American heart than the 
little band of Pilgrims that settled at Plymouth in 1620. 

Massachusetts 

New England Charters. — During the ten years follow- 
ing the migration of the Pilgrims, in 1620, various scattered 
settlements sprung up in the neighborhood of Plymouth, 
but it was not until 1630 that the great Puritan migration 
was begun. 

1 The first governor, John Carver, died the first year after landing. William 
Bradford was then chosen governor, and he held the post for thirty-one years. 
Nearly all the Pilgrims who survived the first winter lived to be old. 



THE PURITAN EXODUS; FOUNDING OF BOSTON 73 

We have noticed in our account of Virginia that King 
Jaraes^ig^vei a charter to two companies, the London and 
^lymo[ith companies. The London Company founded 
Jam^^tpwn ; the Plymouth Company did nothing. But in 
1620 the, Plymouth Company, now called the Council for 
New England,^ received a charter for the vast territory 
betwee;j:>Tithe fortieth and forty-eighth degrees of latitude. 
This com pa^yi made many land grants. One of these was 
to John Endicott and a few companions. Endicott, with 
sixty persons, came and settled at Salem in 1628, and he 
was soon joined by several hundred others This was only 
the beginningjof a far greater migration that was soon to 
-follow.;., .,. 

ii The Puritan Exodus; Founding of Boston. — King 
[James died in 1625, and his son, Charles I, persecuted the 
Dissenters more viciously than his father had done. In 
rspift^e .<l[f,t;fhjs they increased greatly, and large numbers of 
thQin now .determined to leave their native land for 
Am^ri^i^ No,t satisfied with a land grant from the Coun- 
icii forpfMew England, they sought a royal charter and 
received pit. j^ . ^^ 

- This charter was granted to the Massachusetts Bay 
Gompaiiy, in March, 1629. It gave the company power 
to make laws, which should not be contrary to the laws of 
England, and to carry on trade. The charter included 
the territory between a point three miles north of the 
Merrimac to a point three miles south of the Charles 
River, and westward to the Pacific Ocean, which was 
thought to be much nearer than it is. 

The next year, 1630, John Winthrop, a gentleman of 
wealth and education, embarked with nearly a thousand 

^ The country had been named New England by John Smith of Virginia 
fame, who had '— °'i fhe coast a few years before. 



74 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



people for Massachusetts Bay, taking the charter with 
him. The pilgrims who had settled at Plymouth were 

nearly all poor 
and uneducated ; 
but among the 
Puritans were 
many men of 
culture and influ- 
ence. The Puri- 
tans now came in 
large numbers to 
Massachusetts,^ 
and in ten years 
( I 630-1 640) about 
twenty thousand 
had migrated 
from England to 
the colony. Win- 
throp, finding a 
clear spring of 
water on a penin- 
sula decided there 
to found a town and he called it Boston. Thus began the 
leading city of New England. 

Government of Massachusetts. — The charter granted the 
power of governing the colony to a governor, a deputy 
governor, and eighteen assistants, all to be chosen by the 
company. None but church members could become mem- 
bers of the company, or have a vote. The voters were 
called freemen. At length the people became dissatisfied 
and demanded an assembly, similar to the house of bur- 

1 Massachusetts was called Massachusetts Bay for about one hundred and 
fifty years after its founding. 




John Winthrop 



SOME UNPLEASANT HAPPENINGS 



75 



gesses in Virginia. The demand was granted, and the 
governor, assistants, and assembly were together called 
the General Court, which made the laws for the people. 
In 1644 a dispute arose between a rich man and a poor 
woman over the ownership of a 
pig. The General Court was 
called on to decide the matter, 
and the assistants and assembly- 
men could not agree. This fact 
lead to a separation of the two, 
and from this time the legis- 
lature was composed of two 
houses. 

Some Unpleasant Happenings. 
— There was a young minister 
named Roger Williams who came 
from England to Massachusetts 
in 163 I. He did not agree with 
the Puritans in many things. 
He said that the civil law had 
no power over the conscience, 
that it was wrong to force people 
to attend church, and he declared 
that the king had no right to give 
away lands that belonged to the 
Indians. The Puritans did not 
Hke Roger Williams. He made 
them uncomfortable with his criticisms, and the General 
Court decided to send him back to England. Williams, 
hearing of this decision, fled into the forest in midwinter 
(1636). We shall meet him again when we treat of Rhode 
Island. 

Another disturber was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a talented 




Roger Williams 

Statue by FVanklin Simmons at 

Providence, R.I. 



J6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and eloquent woman. She objected to various puritan 
customs, especially to the habit of holding meetings to 
which the women were not admitted. She held meetings 
of women and taught some things that caused much dis- 
turbance. At length it was decided that she must leave 
the colony, and she did so. We shall meet her again also 
in Rhode Island. 

Twenty years after Roger Williams was banished a 
more serious affair disturbed the people of Massachusetts, 
— the coming of a few Quakers from England. The 
Puritans did not want Quakers among them. They did 
not pretend to grant rehgious freedom, except to their 
own class, and when the Quakers came and cried out 
against the Puritan religion, there was much disturbance 
among the people. The General Court decided to banish 
them. But this would do no good for they would come again. 
It was then decided to put any Quaker to death who 
returned to the colony after being banished. Four of 
them who returned were hanged. The law was then 
repealed and the Quakers in time became quiet, useful 
citizens. 

Still another disturbance, the most serious of all, came 
to Massachusetts in 1692. This is known as the Salem 
Witchcraft. The age was a superstitious one and witch- 
craft was believed in at this time in every part of the 
civilized world. ^ Some young girls at Salem, Massachu- 
setts, who had been reading witch stories, imagined they 
were bewitched by an old Indian woman, whom they 
accused. The people became greatly excited and the 
craze spread like a prairie fire. Hundreds were thrown 
into prison ; twenty were put to death. After a year 

1 In England the law inflicting the death penalty for witchcraft was not 
repealed till forty years after this time. 



FOUNDING OF CONNECTICUT ^J 

or two the craze spent itself and the prisoners were 
released. 



Connecticut and Rhode Island, 1636 

One of the Httle towns that grew up near Boston was 
Cambridge (then called Newtown) and the leading man in 
the place was the Rev. Thomas Hooker, who had come 
from England in the same ship with the Rev. John Cotton, 
the leading minister in Boston. Thomas Hooker could not 
agree with John Winthrop, the governor of the colony. 
Hooker believed that all the people who were subject to 
the laws should have something to say in making them. 
Winthrop favored keeping the government in the hands of 
the few. 

Founding of Connecticut. — It was partly for this reason 
no doubt that Thomas Hooker determined to go to the val- 
ley of the Connecticut River and found another colony. 
In the balmy days of June, 1636, he and his congregation 
migrated on foot to the valley of the" Connecticut, driving 
their flocks before them. Joining a few settlers already 
there, they founded the town of Hartford. Other congre- 
gations from the settlements around Boston soon followed. 
Windsor and Wethersfield were founded near Hartford, and 
within a year the three towns had a population of eight 
hundred. 

This country was still a part of Massachusetts ; but in 
1639 the Connecticut settlers banded together, wrote a 
constitution, which they called the Fundamental Orders, 
and formed a little repubhc of their own. This was the 
first constitution in America, and Hartford has been called 
the birthplace of American democracy. This little repub- 
lic created a government similar to that of Massachusetts, 



y^ SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the chief change being that no religious test was required 
for citizenship. 

New Haven and Saybrook. — The year before the found- 
ing of Hartford John Winthrop, son of the governor of 
Massachusetts, built a fort at the mouth of the Connecticut 
River and named it Saybrook. In 1638 the Rev. John 
Davenport and his congregation pitched their tents under 
a great oak tree on the shore of Long Island Sound, 
founded a town and named it New Haven. In this colony 
none but church members could vote. Saybrook was 
soon sold to the Hartford colony, but New Haven pre- 
ferred to remain separate. 

The Connecticut Charter. — In 1662 the younger Win- 
throp secured a charter from King Charles II for Connec- 
ticut, which was made to include New Haven. The New 
Haven people were very much opposed to being joined to 
Connecticut, but the king had so ordered it and they were 
obliged to yield. John Winthrop who had secured the 
charter became the leading man in the colony and was its 
governor for many years, as his father had been in Massa- 
chusetts. The Connecticut charter was the most liberal yet 
granted to any American colony. It granted pure self- 
government, permitting the people to elect their governor 
and to make all their own laws. 

Beginnings of Rhode Island. — We have seen how Roger 
WilUams escaped into the wilderness. For fourteen weeks 
he wandered about, as he afterward said, " not knowing 
what bread or bed did mean." He often slept among the 
Indians, or in hollow trees. Early in the spring (1636) he 
settled, with but five followers, at the head of Narragan- 
sett Bay, on land given him by the Indians, founded a 
town and called it Providence. Other settlers soon came, 
and among them was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, who hke 



THE PEQUOT WAR 79 

Williams, had been banished from Massachusetts.^ She 
and her followers founded the town of Portsmouth, while 
William Coddington founded Newport, further southward. 
These towns were joined with Providence and together 
they were called Rhode Island. 

The government of Rhode Island was, like that of Hart- 
ford, a pure democracy. It was based on freedom of con- 
science and no religious test was required. But bachelors 
were not allowed to vote. In 1643 Williams went to Eng- 
land and secured a charter for Rhode Island. Twenty 
years later (1663) Charles II granted a second charter to 
Rhode Island. This was very similar to the Connecticut 
charter. It gave the people absolute self-government, 
except that the laws should conform with the laws of Eng- 
land. It also guaranteed religious equality to all. So 
liberal were these charters of Connecticut and Rhode 
Island that they became state constitutions and remained 
in force many years after the Revolutionary War. 

The Pequot War. — These new settlements in the Con- 
necticut Valley were fated to go through a very bitter 
experience within a year or two after their founding. The 
Pequot tribe of Indians were displeased with the new white 
settlements so near them, and determined to make war 
on them. First they attempted to win the aid of the power- 
ful Narragansett tribe, but were prevented by Roger Wil- 
liams, who was a favorite with the Narragansett chief. 
The Pequots attacked the lonely settlers here and there 
during the winter of 1636-1637, and in the following spring 
the war broke out in earnest. But it was soon over. 
About eighty white men and some Indian aUies attacked 
the Pequot stronghold, and slew about six hundred in a 

1 Mrs. Hutchinson afterward moved with her family further westward and 
at last was murdered by the Indians. 



8o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

night. The Pequot tribe was destroyed, and for forty years 
thereafter New England was free from Indian #ars. 

New Hampshire and Maine ^ 

The first settlements in the territory that became New 
Hampshire were made about three years after the Pil- 
grims settled at Plyoiouth. A large tract, between the 
Merrimac and Kennebec rivers, had been granted to John 
Mason and Sir Ferdinand Gorges. The first 'settlement 
was made in 1623 by a Scot named Thomson at the 
mouth of the Piscataqua and was called Little Harbor. 
Dover and other towns were soon begun. Some of the 
settlements were made by followers of Mrs. Hutchinson. 

The tract granted to Mason and Gorges was divided, the 
portion retained by Mason became New Hampshire (so' 
called after Mason's home in England), and the portibn 
kept by Gorges became Maine. The New Hampshire 
towns had a good deal of trouble with their government, 
and in 1641 they agreed to come under the government of 
Massachusetts. Fifty years after this (1691) New Hamp-- 
shire finally separated from Massachusetts, and became a^ 
royal colony. The settlements in Maine were gradually 
absorbed by Massachusetts, and not till Tong kfter the 
Revolution were they separated, when Maine became a state' 
in the Union. 

SUMMARY 

Religious liberty had not dawned on the world at the time of the 
settling of the first English colonies. In England thoS'e'xvtib sought' 
to purify the Established Church were called Puritans ;,ith(bse who left; 
it were called Separatists. Puritans and Separatists were sqmetipies 
called Nonconformists, or Dissenters. y 

The Pilgrims were a band of Separatists who escaped to Holland and 
later migrated to America, settling the Plymouth colony in 1620. They 
were known as Pilgrims because of their wanderings. 



SUMMARY gl 

Massachusetts Bay. — The Puritans, led by John Winthrop, settled 
about Massachusetts Bay in large numbers (i 630-1 640), bringing their 
charter with them. The government was in the hands of a ''governor, 
his deputy, and eighteen assistants. The colony banishe'cl Roger 
Williams (1636) and Anne Hutchinson (1637); persecuted Quakers 
(1655) and supposed witches (1692). 

Connecticut and Rhode Island. — Thomas Hooker founded Connecti- 
cut and Roger Williams Rhode Island in 1636. In 1639 Connecticut 
produced the first written constitution. Rhode Island secured a 
charter in 1643 and another in 1663. In 1662 Connecticut received her 
charter, which included New Haven. These charters gave the people 
complete self-government. Connecticut and Rhode Island were dis- 
turbed by the Pequot War in 1637. 

New Hampshire. — First settlement at the mouth of the Piscataqua 
in 1623. New Hampshire and Maine were divided, and in 1641 New 
Hampshire was joined with Massachusetts, but became a separate colony 
fifty years later. Maine remained part of Massachusetts till after the 
Revolution. 



CHAPTER V 
NEW ENGLAND AFFAIRS, 

We have traced the settlement of six colonies in New 
England. Two of these, Connecticut and New Haven, had 
united into one. Two others, Massachusetts and Plymouth, 
were yet to unite. This reduces the number to four ; 
namely, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and 
New Hampshire. These four were among the original 
thirteen, and all became states in the Union at the close of 
the war for independence. The other two New England 
states, Maine and Vermont, came into the Union at a later 
period, and were not among the original Thirteen States. 

We have noticed the founding and early growth of these 
colonies, separately ; let us now give attention to a few 
events that concerned them all, or at least two or more of 
them. 

The New England Confederacy, 1643-1684 

A confederacy is a union or league of states or colonies 
for their better protection and mutual advantage. The 
people of New England felt the need of protection from 
four possible sources of danger. 

I. From the Dutch, who had settled on the Hudson, as 
we shall see in the next chapter ; 2. from the French who 
had settled on the St. Lawrence ; 3. from the Indians ; and 
4. from the possible encroachments of the mother country, 
which was (1642- 1649) in the throes of civil war. 

82 



KING PHILIP'S WAR 83 

The call for a union of the colonies came from Hartford, 
the birthplace of the first written constitution. Only four 
of the colonies — Hartford, New Haven, Massachusetts, 
and Plymouth — entered into the league. This was before 
Hartford and New Haven had been joined into one. The 
articles were drawn up at Boston. Each colony retained 
its home government as before. The business of the 
league was to be transacted by a commission of eight men, 
two from each colony, and a vote of six was required to 
carry any measure. This league continued till 1684, — 
forty-one years. But it was very weak after 1662, when 
Hartford and New Haven were united. This confederacy 
became a model for colonial union in later times ; it also 
proved useful in dealing with the Dutch, who had laid 
claim to the Connecticut Valley, and, above all, it carried 
the people of New, England through the most dangerous 
Indian war in our colonial history. This is known as 

King Philip's War 

The relations of the colonists with the Indians were 
threefold. They preached the gospel to the Indians, they 
traded with them, and they fought with them. 

The colonists were sincere in preaching to the Indians. 
Rev. John Eliot, the '' Apostle to the Indians," translated 
the Bible into their language (1665), and spent much of 
his time for forty years preaching to them. Eliot had 
many faithful assistants, and many of the dusky inhabitants 
of the forest learned to bow down to the Christian's God. 

The colonists carried on trade with the Indians because 
it was profitable and, at first, even necessary in preserving 
themselves from starvation. But it was most natural that 
at times trouble between the two races would arise, so 
unlike they were in habits and aspirations. 



84 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

King Philip was the son and successor of Massasoit,^ 
the chief who had made the treaty with the Pilgrims soon 
after their landing. For half a century this treaty had 
been kept. But Philip disHked the English because they 




A Battle with the Indians 



had taken so much of the Indian lands, and he determined 
to unite the Indians against them, and drive them from the 
country. 

The war began by an Indian attack on the town of 

1 Massasoit had brought his two sons to the English asking that they be 
given English names, and they were called Alexander and Philip. Alexan- 
der, the elder, died and Philip became king. 



COMING OF ANDROS 85 

Swansea. The alarm soon spread, and bat three hours 
after it reached Boston a body of men were marching from 
that city to the Indian country. Other towns were equally 
vigorous, and for many months the forest rang with the 
crack of the rifle and the Indian warwhoop. 

Philip was an able and courageous leader. He enlisted 
the aid of the Narragansetts and of the Nipmucks ; but 
many of Eliot's converts aided the white men. Deerfield, 
Northfield, and other towns were burned, and many of 
the inhabitants massacred. When the Indians attacked 
Hadley, it is said that an aged man with flowing white 
beard and hair suddenly appeared and took command, and 
the enemy was soon driven off. The people thought him 
an angel sent to their deliverance. It proved to be the 
regicide, Goffe, who had been hiding in the town.^ 

In the following winter a thousand men marched against 
the Indians. They surprised the Narragansett stronghold, 
and killed several hundred in a night. The Indian power 
was now broken, and Philip himself was slain by one of his 
own subjects, who had turned against him. The war 
soon ended and never again was there an Indian war in 
southern New England. The cost of the war bore heavily 
on the colonists. A thousand brave young men had per- 
ished, and the country was marked with desolate farms and 
ruined homes. 

Edmund Andros 

The disastrous war had scarcely ended when New Eng- 
land had to pass through another unpleasant experience. 
King Charles II had come to disUke New England, especi- 
ally Massachusetts. The people were too independent to 

1 Goffe and his father-in-law, Whalley, who had signed the death warrant 
of King Charles I, fled to America after the Restoration in 1660. 



86 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



please him, and besides, they refused to give up Whalley 
and Goffe, who had aided in putting his father to death. 
The people of Massachusetts had waited fifteen months 
before proclaiming Charles king, and in 1661 they issued 
a Declaration of Rights which displeased the king, and he 
determined to revoke their charter. 

Massachusetts loses her Charter. — On various grounds 
the king attacked the colony and in 1684 that noble char- 
ter which John Winthrop 
had brought from Eng- 
land and which had im- 
bedded itself deeply in 
the hearts of the people 
had to be given. up. The 
next year the king died ; 
his brother who became 
king, as James II, proved 
himself still more a tyrant 
than Charles had been. 

Coming of Andros. — 
Massachusetts was now a 
royal colony and its former 
independence was gone. 
In 1686 James sent 
Andros to govern all New 
England and also New 
York and New Jersey. This new governor had no respect 
for the rights of the people. He aboHshed the legisla- 
ture, taxed the people as he chose, sent innocent men 
to jail, and even attacked the titles to the land. He 
brought Rhode Island under his sway, and went to Hart- 
ford and demanded the charter of Connecticut. While 
he was parleying with the assembly about the charter, the 




NEW MASSACHUSETTS CHARTER 8/ 

lights were suddenly put out, so tradition informs us, when 
Captain Wadsvvorth seized the charter and ran out and hid 
it in the hollow of an oak tree, which was ever after known 
as the Charter Oak.^ 

Delivered from a Tyrant. — The people of New Eng- 
land were not subdued. Their half century of self-gov- 
ernment had filled them with the spirit of hberty which 
could not be crushed. They only waited their opportunity, 
and it soon came. In 1688 James II was driven from the 
throne of England, and William of Orange became king. 
When the news reached New England, the shout of glad- 
ness from the people echoed from hill to hill. They seized 
Andros and sent him a prisoner to England. 

New Massachusetts Charter, 1691. — The old charters 
of Connecticut and Rhode Island were declared restored 
and these two colonies were soon as independent as 
before. Massachusetts did not receive back her old char 
ter, but was granted a new one. By this second charter 
her boundaries were enlarged by the addition of Manie, 
Nova Scotia, and Plymouth. But her old independence 
was not restored. The governor must henceforth be 
chosen by the king, and though the people still elected 
the legislature, the laws had to be sent to England for 
the approval of the king. 

Farewell to Plymouth. — Regretfully we take leave of 
Plymouth, the land of the Mayflower Pilgrims. This was 
the oldest of all the New England colonies. For seventy- 
one years it had sailed its little boat through storm and 
sunshine ; but from this time on it must be part of the 
greater colony of Massachusetts. Of the band of Pil- 
grims that came in the Mayflozver only three remained 

1 This precious tree was blown down in 1856, and a monument now marks 
the spot where Jt stood. 



88 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

alive, — John Cooke, Mary Cushman, and Peregrine White, 
the last being the child born on the Mayfloiver. 

Development of New England 

The subject of education, occupations, manners and 
customs, peculiar laws, and local government, of all the 
colonies will be treated in a future chapter on " Colonial 
Life." Here we shall notice briefly the growth and 
development of the New England settlements. 

The Plymouth Colony. — The colony of Pilgrims had a 
very slow growth, from two causes, i. They were Sepa- 
ratists ; that is, they had separated entirely from the 
Episcopal Church, and even the Puritans disliked the Sep- 
aratists. 2. The Pilgrims borrowed money from English 
merchants, practically mortgaging themselves, in order to 
embark for America. This debt was so heavy that it took 
them many years to pay it. From these causes the colony 
attracted few other settlers and when ten years had passed 
(1630), there were but 300 people in Plymouth. Ten 
years later, however, the colony numbered 3000, and in 
1670 about 8000. 

Massachusetts. — We have noticed that many of the 
early settlers of Massachusetts were men of fortune and 
standing and that the growth of the colony was very 
rapid, reaching 20,000 in ten years. Nearly all the settlers 
were Puritans, who were at first unfriendly to the Separa- 
tists of Plymouth. But after reaching America the Puri- 
tans themselves became Separatists. They never had any 
further connection with the Church of England, and the 
Puritan Church of that day has grown into the Congrega- 
tional Church of the present. Puritanism became gradu- 
ally softened, and in the second charter (1691) the right to 



THE OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 89 

vote was extended to non-church members. At the coming; 
of the Revolution Massachusetts contained about 300,000 
people and was second in population among the colonies, 
Virginia coming first. 

The Other New England Colonies were all swarms from 
this mother hive, Massachusetts, none of them being settled 
directly from England. The Connecticut Valley was the 
only portion of New England of which the soil was fer- 
tile and well suited to farming. This fact caused a rapid 
growth of Connecticut, of which the population reached 
some 200,000 at the coming of independence. At the 
same time the population of New Hampshire was about 
75,000, and of Rhode Island about 50,000. 

Vermont was first known as the "New Hampshire 
^ Grants," and the territory was claimed by both New 
Hampshire and New York. In 1765 the king decided 
the contest in favor of New York; but when the gov- 
ernor of New York ordered the settlers to repurchase 
their lands, they rose in rebellion. They called them- 
selves the ''Green Mountain Boys," and, led by Ethan 
Allen and Seth Warner, they demanded that the '' New 
Hampshire Grants " be made a separate state under the 
name of Vermont. This was at the beginning of the Revo- 
lution, and the domestic quarrel was hushed in the presence 
of the foreign foe. After that war New York and New 
Hampshire were again ready to fight over the territory; 
but it was decided to compromise, and Vermont entered 
the Union in 1791, as the first state aside from the original 
thirteen. 

SUMMARY 

The New England Confederacy was formed in 1643 and continued 
till 1684. Four colonies were in the union — Massachusetts, Connecti- 
cut, New Hampshire, and Plymouth. It was a model for later union, 



90 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

was effective in defending the people against the Dutch, and in carrying 
on the war with King Philip. 

King Philip's War (i 675-1 678). — The war was disastrous to New 
England. A thousand men perished and many towns were destroyed. 
The power of the Indians was destroyed. 

Edmund Andros was sent by King James II to unite New England 
with New York and New Jersey and to govern all (1686). Massachu- 
setts had lost her charter in 1684. On the fall of James, Andros was 
sent a prisoner to England ; Connecticut and Rhode Island continued 
under their old charters ; Massachusetts was granted a new one (1691), 
and with her Plymouth, Maine, and Nova Scotia were united. 

Growth of New England. — Plymouth grew slowly, for two reasons : 
the fact that the colonists were Separatists, and they h^d a heavy debt. 
Massachusetts grew rapidly, there being about three hundred thousand 
people at the coming of the Revolution. Puritanism became softened 
and non-church members were given the right to vote. Connecticut, 
Rhode Island, and New Hampshire were all settled by people from 
Massachusetts. Connecticut grew rapidly because of her fertile soil. 
Vermont was first called the " New Hampshire Grants," and the terri- 
tory was claimed by both New York and New Hampshire. In the end 
Vermont became a separate state. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

The thirteen original colonies are usually mentioned 
as divided into three groups ; and we give them in this 
form, because they are thus more easily remembered than 
when given in the order of their founding, and because the 
character and habits of the people warrant this division. 

We have noticed two of these groups : first, the five 
Southern Colonies — Virginia, Maryland, the two Caro- 
linas, and Georgia; second, the four New England Colo- 
nies — Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and 
New Hampshire. The four yet to be noticed are known 
as the Middle Colonies — New York, New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, and Delaware. The first of these four, now the 
most populous state in the Union, was New York. 

New York, 1623 

The thirteen colonies were all founded by English people, 
except New York and Delaware. New York, first called 
New Amsterdam, was settled and controlled for forty 
years by the Dutch. Dutch sailors at the beginning of the 
seventeenth century were among the boldest in the world, 
and no power, except Itngland, was so great on the sea as 
Holland. 

Henry Hudson. — A Dutch company that traded with the 
Orient, desiring to find a shorter passage, sent Henry Hud- 
son, an English navigator, in the ship Half Moon in search 



92 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



of it. The northern part of North America was still be- 
lieved to be an open sea, and the object of Hudson was 
the same that had brought Columbus across the Sea of 
Darkness a hundred and seventeen years before. Hudson 




The " Half Moon " in the Hudson River 



did not find a northwest passage, but he discovered the 
beautiful river that bears his name, in September, 1609. 

He sailed up the river to the site of Albany, and the 
grandeur of the scenery — the palisades, the majestic hills, 
and the autumnal beauty of the forests — led him to write 



NEW NETHERLAND 93 

that it was *' as fair a land as was ever trodden by the foot 
of man."^ 

New Netherland. — Hudson also sailed into the Dela- 
ware, which was called the South River, while the Hudson 
was called the North River. The country between them was 
called New Netherland. In 1621 a great company was 
chartered in Holland, the Dutch West India Company, 
and was granted the right to make settlements in New 
Netherland. In 1623 (three years after the Pilgrims 
landed at Plymouth) about thirty families, chiefly Walloons 
(Dutch word for strangers) Protestants from Belgium, en- 
tered the Hudson, some settling at Manhattan and some 
at Albany.2 

Other Dutch settlements were made, on the Delaware, 
on the Connecticut, and on Long Island, and indeed, the 
Dutch claimed all the territory between the Chesapeake 
Bay and the Connecticut River. 

The Four Dutch Governors. — The first of the four Dutch 
governors was Peter Minuit, who arrived at Manhattan 
Island in 1626. He purchased the entire island from the 
Indians — about twenty-two thousand acres — for about 
twenty-four dollars worth of beads and ribbons. No other 
equal area in the world is now worth so vast a sum of 
money as Manhattan Island. Minuit built a fort and 

1 Hudson was not the First to discover the Hudson River. This had been 
done by Verrazano eighty-five years before. At the time Hudson was explor- 
ing the Hudson River, Champlain was exploring the lake that bears his name, 
and John Smith was bartering with the Indians in the wilderness of Virginia. 
The next year (1610) Hudson made a voyage in an English ship, and while 
in the great bay that was afterward called by his name, his crew became muti- 
nous, and set him with his son and a few others adrift in an open boat. The 
crew, on returning to England was sent to jail, and an expedition sent to 
search for Hudson. But the great navigator was never found. 

2 A few traders had come as early as 1614. 



94 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



started a town on the island and gave them the name 
of New Amsterdam. 

After six years Miniiit was recalled and Wouter van 
Twiller became his successor, and he, in turn, was suc- 
ceeded five years later by William Kieft Kieft was 
energetic, but he was a tyrant and wanting in tact. He 
quarreled with the Swedes on the Delaware, with the Eng- 
lish on the Connecticut, and with the Indians on all sides. 
The people protested against his methods and he answered, 
" In] this country I am my own master and may do as I 

please." After ten 
years of turbulence 
and misrule Kieft 
was recalled. He 
sailed for Holland, 
but the vessel was 
wrecked at sea and 
the fallen governor 
was among the lost. 
Peter Stuy vesant 
was the last and 
most famous of the 
Dutch governors. 
Stuyvesant was an 
old soldier and had 
lost a leg in battle. 
He was a man of 
iron will, had no 
sympathy with the 
people, and no 
power to read pubhc opinion ; but he was a great im- 
provement over van Twiller and Kieft. 

Growth of New Netherland. — Settlers came at first in very 




Petk 



brUV\ESAN' 



GOVERNMENT OF NEW NETHERLAND 95 

small numbers. The fact that the settlements existed only 
to enrich the West India Company was repelling to home 
seekers. Five years after the first settlement was made 
scarcely three hundred people lived on Manhattan Island. 
Then the patroon system was established. By this system 
any one who would bring or send fifty settlers was granted 
a tract of land of sixteen miles frontage on a river or bay, 
or eight miles on each side of a river. It was not long 
until the Hudson Valley was dotted with these great estates 
of the patroons. Most of them became rich men by col- 
lecting rents from the people who occupied their estates. 

About the time that Kieft became governor the patroon 
system was restricted and much land, as well as the Indian 
fur trade, was thrown open to independent home seekers. 
The effect was magical. People came from the English 
colonies, and from nearly every country of Europe. It 
was said that in 1643 no less than eighteen languages 
were spoken in New Amsterdam. In 1664 about ten thou- 
sand people lived in New Netherland. 

Government of New Netherland. — The government of 
the various settlements was at first entirely in the hands 
of the governor and a council of five men, appointed by the 
company in Holland. It was very similar to the govern- 
ment of Virginia before the first house of burgesses was 
elected. But the people were discontented in having no 
voice in making their own laws, especially so when they 
compared their own condition with that of the self-govern- 
ing English colonies about them. They demanded a share 
in the government. Governor Kieft granted them an as- 
sembly of twelve men, but managed to keep all the power 
in his own hands. At length when Stuyvesant was gov- 
ernor, the people again became clamorous for an assembly 
and he granted their request. But when the assembly met. 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



the cross old governor would sit in the hall with them, and 
the loud stamping of his wooden leg on the floor warned 
them when matters were not going to please him. 

In 1655 Stuyvesant, with a fleet of seven ships, sailed 
into the Delaware Bay and conquered New Sweden, as we 
shall notice again when we treat of the colony of Dela- 




New Amsterdam 

ware. On his return he found his people in trouble with 
the Indians. A farmer had shot a squaw for stealing 
peaches from his orchard. This brought on a war, which 
continued at intervals for several years. When forty-one 
years had passed after the settling of New Amsterdam, and 
Stuyvesant had been governor for seventeen years, Dutch 
rule in America came to an end and New Netherland 
ceased to exist. 

Conquest of New Netherland. — England laid claim to all 
of New Netherland and decided for two reasons to con- 



CONQUEST OF NEW NETHERLAND 



97 



qiier and possess it. i. The Dutch settlements divided 
New England from the other colonies and threatened 
British dominion in America. 2. The Dutch evaded the 
navigation laws and carried large quantities of produce 
from the English colonies to Holland without pavino- a 
duty. ^ ^ 

Colonel Richard Nicolls, with a British fleet, sailed into 
the mouth of the Hudson in 1664 and demanded the sur- 
render of New Amsterdam. Stuyvesant refused : - he 
fumed and fretted and stamped his wooden leg." But the 
people refused to come to his support. They were tired 
of his tyrannical rule and were glad to welcome the Eng- 
hsh. The irate old governor had to yield. New Amster- 
dam surrendered and became New York, so named after 
the Duke of York (afterward King James H) to whom 
King Charles granted a charter (1664) for all the land 
between the Connecticut and the Delaware.^ 

Nicolls became the first English governor of New York. 
He was wise and tactful, and he retained the government 
very much as it had been under the Dutch. He framed 
a code of laws, known as the Duke's Laws, which were 
borrowed largely from the laws in New England, except 
that the people had no part in the government. 

The people, however, especially the Enghsh settlers among 
them, demanded an assembly. This was granted in 1683'J 
but two .years later Charles II died and the proprietor of 

1 Peter Stuyvesant, after making a tour to Holland, returned and spent the 
rest of his life in New York. Here on his farm known as " The Bowery " he 
spent a few happy years, dying in 1672. He was buried at the little country 
church near his home, now in the heart of the vast metropolis whose popula- 
tion IS ten times greater than that of all the American colonies of that day 

Nine years after the Nicolls conquest England and Holland were again at 
war and a Dutch fleet recaptured New York ; but it was ceded back to the 
English at the coming of peace the following year. 



98 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

New York, the Duke of York, became king as James II, 
and New York became a royal colony. King James 
was greatly opposed to popular government and he united 
New York to New England and sent Edmund Andros to be 
governor, with headquarters in Boston, as we have seen. 
But when James was driven from the British throne, the 
rule of Andros came to an end, and New York secured the 
self-government for which she had longed for many years. 

Jacob Leisler. — The fall of Andros left New York with- 
out an official head and Jacob Leisler, an impetuous German 
merchant, took control. Leisler was doubtless a man of 
honorable intentions, but by his reckless methods he made 
bitter enemies. When the governor appointed by the king 
arrived, Leisler was imprisoned and his enemies were deter- 
mined to have him executed. The governor hesitated to 
sign his death warrant, but was induced to do so while 
drunk. By the time the governor had recovered his senses 
Leisler had been hanged. 

Growth of New York. — The growth of New York was 
steady and substantial. The Hudson Valley was very rich 
in farm lands and was inhabited chiefly by Dutch farmers, 
who retained their customs and language for many years. 
The two great industries, farming and the fur trade, engaged 
the great majority of the people. The population of the 
colony had reached about twenty-five thousand by the year 
1 700. It is supposed that there were about eighty thousand 
inhabitants in 1750 and more than twice that number at the 
opening of the Revolution. 

New Jersey, 1664 

The present state of New Jersey was a part of New 
Netherland as claimed by the Dutch. It was also included 
in the very extensive grant of Charles 11 to his brother 



NEW JERSEY DIVIDED 



99 



James in 1664. James conveyed it to two of his friends, 
Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. The latter had 
been governor of the island of Jersey in the English Chan- 
nel, and the new colony was called New Jersey. The first 
settlement was made. at Elizabeth, being called after the 
name of Lady Carteret. Newark was founded by people 
from New Haven. Carteret issued a form of government 
called the " Concessions," which was very liberal and 
attracted many settlers. 




New Jersey Divided. — Within a few years Berkeley sold 
his interests to some Quakers, one of whom was William 
Penn. In 1676 New Jersey was divided into East Jersey 
and West Jersey, the latter being the property of the 
Quakers. On the death of George Carteret in 1680 East 
Jersey also passed into the hands of the Quakers. The 
Quaker rule was mild in the extreme and many settlers 
were attracted to the colony. 

When James became king of England, he demanded that 



lOO SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the Jersey charter be given up, and sent Andros to govern 
the colony. At the downfall of Andros the colony was 
left practically without a government, and after ten years 
of disorder New Jersey was surrendered to the crown 
(1702) and became a royal colony. Queen Anne, who was 
then the sovereign of England, extended the authority of 
New York's governor over New Jersey. This arrangement 
continued for thirty-six years when, in 1738, the two were 
finally separated. 

Rural life in Jersey. — New Jersey in colonial days was 
a land of farmers. The numerous towns were little else 
than centers of farming communities. The people were 
happy and contented, and even when there was so much 
trouble about the government, many of the farmers con- 
tinued raising their crops and enjoying life, giving little 
heed to affairs of government. The colony was singu- 
larly free from Indian wars. In 1760 about seventy-five 
thousand people lived in New Jersey. 

Delaware, 1638 

The soil of this little state was claimed by the Dutch, 
through the discoveries of Hudson ; by the Swedes, who 
made the first permanent settlement, and later it came into 
possession of the EngHsh. 

First Settlements in Delaware. — As early as 1631 the 
Dutch made a small settlement on the western shore of the 
Delaware Bay ; but the settlers were massacred to the last 
man by the Indians. 

Even before this the great Swedish king, Gustavus 
Adolphus, was planning to colonize the western bank of 
the Delaware. He was deeply interested in the project 
and pronounced the country ** the jewel of his kingdom." 



NEW SWEDEN CONQUERED BY THE DUTCH loi 

Gustavus was killed at the battle of Lutzen, in the Thirty 
Years' War, in 1632, and his plan to plant a colony in 
America was checked, but not abandoned. 

At length the Swedes secured the services of Peter 
Minuit, who had been governor of New Amsterdam, and 
in two vessels he brought over a company of settlers in 1638. 
They called the land New Sweden. ^ On the site of Wil- 
mington they made a settlement and named it Christina, 
after the child queen of their native land. They purchased 
land of the Indians on the western side of the Delaware as 
far up as a point opposite Trenton, founded a town on the 
site of Philadelphia, built churches, and were soon a most 
happy and prosperous community. 

New Sweden conquered by the Dutch. — By 1655 at learst 
seven hundred Swedes were scattered along the Delaware, 
when Peter Stuyvesant came with his fleet and demanded 
the surrender of the colony. The Swedes were in no con- 
dition to make a defense and they yielded without a struggle. 
New Sweden, which had existed seventeen years, now 
ceased to exist as a separate colony ; but the people were 
permitted to retain their farms and they continued to 
prosper under the new government. The conquest of New 
Netherland by the English in 1664 included Delaware, 
which now became the property of the Duke of York. 

In 1682, the year of the founding of Pennsylvania, the 
Duke of York sold Delaware to William Penn and it was 
annexed to Pennsylvania. In 1702 Penn granted Delaware 
a separate legislature, but the two colonies had the same 
governor, and the history of Delaware from that time to 
the coming of the Revolution was identified with that of 
its great neighbor to the north. 

iThe only right the Swedes could claim to the land was based on the as- 
sumption that unoccupied lands were common property. 



02 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Pennsylvania, 1682 



The Quakers, owing to their pecuhar form of reUgion, 
were a persecuted people in England and America. They 
refused to recognize social rank or to pay taxes to carry 
on wars. The British Parliament pronounced them a 
*' mischievous and dangerous people." Their reception 
in Massachusetts we have seen. 

The founder of the sect was George Fox, an English- 
man of great magnetism and religious fervor. His con- 
verts were chiefly from 
among the poor, and 
they were greatly elated 
when the young son of 
Admiral Penn, one of 
the most prominent men' 
in England, became a 
convert to their society. 
The idea of founding 
a colony in America for 
persecuted Quakers was 
conceived by George 
Fox and carried out by 
William Penn. Penn 
was not satisfied with 
his experience in New 
Jersey and he cast a 
wistful eye to the fair lands beyond the Delaware. King 
Charles II was indebted to Admiral Penn to the amount of 
about $80,000 and when the admiral died, his son WiUiam 
inherited the claim. 

The Pennsylvania Charter. — To satisfy this claim the 
king granted to William Penn about forty thousand square 




William Penn 



THE FIRST SETTLERS 



103 



miles, west of the Delaware and north of Maryland. The 
charter was granted in 1681 and the king named the new 
land Pennsylvania in honor of the dead admiral. 

The province of Pennsylvania was a princely domain, a 
vast, fertile region traversed by beautiful rivers and lofty 
mountains, and containing a wealth of minerals unequaled 
^ by all the other colonies combined. And it was rightly 
named, for it was one vast forest, extending from the Dela- 
ware over the Appalachian Mountain system and far into 
the Ohio Valley.^ 

The charter granted the power of governing the colony 
to Penn.'^ As a token of allegiance he was required to 
send the king two beaver skins each year, and a fifth of 
all the gold and silver that might be mined. To gain an 
outlet to the sea Penn purchased Delaware, called the " Three 
Lower Counties" or ''The Territories," from the Duke of 
York. He drew up a form of government, giving a large 
share of the governing power to the people. When it became 
known that Penn, who had a reputation all over England 
as a just and noble man, was building a colony in America, 
many of, the people were ready to join the enterprise. 

The First Settlers. — Penn chose William Markham, his 
relative, to be first governor of Pennsylvania. Markham 
sailed with three shiploads of emigrants in the autumn of 
1 68 1. He bore a friendly letter from Penn to the Swedes 
on the Delaware. "You shall be governed by laws of 
your own making, and live a free, and if you will, a sober 
and industrious people," said Penn in this letter. 

The next year Penn himself came to America in the 

1 See Elson's " History," p. 154. 

2 The charter reserved to the king the power to veto the laws, and to the 
Parliament the right to tax the people of the colony. This latter became sig- 
nificant at the approach of the Revolution. 



104 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ship Welcome. The passengers numbered about a hundred, 
one third of whom died of smallpox on the ocean. The 
proprietor sailed up the Delaware to the site of Phila- 
delphia, where he found a small Swedish village and a 
Lutheran Church. ^ Here he decided to build a city and 
make it the capital of his province. Purchasing the land 
of the Swedes, he laid out the |||eets in the spring of 
1683. The growth of Philadelphia was phenomenal. In 
less than four years it had passed New York, which had 
been founded sixty years. For one hundred and fifty 
years thereafter Philadelphia was the largest city in 
America. It is now third in size, New York and Chicago 
having passed it. 

The Penn Treaty ; Mason and Dixon's Line. — Soon after 
founding Philadelphia Penn made his famous treaty with 
the Indians. The place was a few miles north of the city 
on the bank of the Delaware at a place called Shacka- 
maxon. The treaty was merely a verbal agreement and it 
was kept inviolate for many years. Penn addressed the 
Indians as brothers, and they answered that they "would 
live in love with William Penn and his children as long as 
the sun and moon give light." It was said that for many 
years when an Indian wished to pay the highest compli- 
ment to a white man, he would say, " He is like William 
Penn." 

No other colony had so much trouble in fixing its boun- 
dary lines as Pennsylvania. The charter was not clear 
on this point and a dispute arose between Penn and 
Lord Baltimore concerning the line between Pennsylvania 
and Maryland. This was continued till long after Penn 
and Baltimore were in their graves. Finally two sur- 

1 This church, known as Wicaco, is still standing and is one of the most 
interesting landmarks of Philadelphia. 



THE PENN, TREATY 105 

veyors, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, were brought 
from England to survey the line. They completed the 
work in 1767, and the line which afterward became famous 
as a boundary between the free and slave states has always 
been known as Mason and Dixon's line. 

Government and Growth of Pennsylvania. — William 
Penn gave to his colonists practically all power in the 
government. The people elected the assembly and council 
and through them made all the laws. Pennsylvania was 
by no means an exclusive home for Quakers. Swedes, 
Germans, Dutchmen, and Scots came in considerable 
numbers and they all found an open door. The govern- 
ment was based on the principle of human equality, and no 
American colony was more truly democratic. The growth 
of Pennsylvania was more rapid than that of any other 
colony. Penn remained but two years on his first visit to 
his colony, but when in 1699 he again crossed the Atlantic, 
he found twenty thousand people in his fast-growing 
province. Still they came and, though Pennsylvania was 
the last of the colonies to be founded except Georgia, it 
ranked third in population at the end of the colonial era. 

SUMMARY 

The thirteen colonies are divided into three groups, Southern, New 
England, and Middle. Ail except two — New York and Delaware — 
were settled by Englishmen. 

New York, first called New Amsterdam, was settled by the Dutch 
(1623) and was governed by them for forty-one years. The whole 
province claimed by the Dutch, from the Chesapeake to the Connecticut 
River, was known as New Netherland. The Dutch surrendered to the 
English in 1664. Only after the fall of Andros did New York attain 
self-government. 

New Jersey was ceded by the Duke of York to Lord Berkeley and 
George Carteret. First settlements made at Elizabeth and Newark. 



I06 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The colony was divided into East and West Jersey, the Quakers getting 
control of the latter. New Jersey became a royal colony in 1702, and 
for thirty-six years had a common governor with New York. The 
settlers were nearly all farmers. 

Delaware was settled by the Swedes in 1638, and in 1655 was con- 
quered by the Dutch. The colony became English with the conquest 
of New Netherland (1664). It was afterward sold to William Penn 
and was joined to Pennsylvania, so continuing to the time of the 
Revolution. 

Pennsylvania. — The charter for Pennsylvania was granted to William 
Penn, a Quaker, in 1681. Penn came in 1682, and the next year founded 
Philadelphia and made his treaty with the Indians. He gave nearly all 
governing power to the people. The colony grew faster than any other 
had done, and Philadelphia soon became the largest city in America. 
The colony remained in the hands of the Penns to the end of the 
colonial era. 

NOTES 

The Walking Purchase. — One of the most singular of bargains made with tlie 
Indians was made by Wilham Penn and was known as the Walking Purchase. By 
this he was to receive a tract of land extending as far from the Delaware as a man 
could walk in three days. He and a few friends and some Indians walked about 
thirty miles in a day and a half, and as he needed no more land at the time the 
matter was left to be finished at some future time. In 1733, long after Penn's 
death, the other day and a half was walked out in a different spirit. The white men 
employed the three fastest walkers that could be found, offering each five hundred 
acres of land. One of them died on the journey; another was injured for life, but 
the third, a man named Marshall, walked over sixty miles in the day and a half, to 
the great chagrin of the Indians. 

William Penn was born in 1644, the year that George Fox, at the age of twenty, 
began preaching. While a student at Oxford, Penn fell in with the Quakers and 
was expelled from college. He was imprisoned on various occasions, once for 
preaching in the streets of London. Admiral Penn stormed at his son for becom- 
ing a Quaker, but without effect. History furnishes few men so utterly incorrup- 
tible as was Penn. When on the threshold of manhood, every inducement was 
held out to him, every blandishment of wealth and station to lead him to choose a 
life of pleasure and royal favor ; but he cast all aside and chose the society of a 
despised people, purely for conscience' sake. No allurements of Pharaoh's court, 
no threats of an angry father, or frowning prison walls could change his purpose. 
Thirty-seven years elapsed from the time he received the Pennsylvania charter to 
his death. He spent but four of these years in Pennsylvania, yet we think of him as 
almost as truly an American as Franklin or Washington. The last years of Penn's 
life were full of bitterness. He lost his fortune, he lost his wife and eldest son, and 



GOVERNMENT AND GROWTH OF PENNSYLVANIA 107 

he was arrested in England on a charge of treason, but acquitted. Durin<^ the 
last few years of his life he was a helpless paralytic. He died in 1718 at the age of 
seventy-four. He bequeathed his province to his three surviving sons, who with 
their successors, held it till after the Revolution. 

REFERENCES 

Elson, "History of the United States"; Thwaites, -The Colonies"- 
Lodge, "Short History"; Bryant and Gay, "Popular History." For 
longer accounts see Fiske, '^ Dutch and Quaker Colonies " ; Bancroft 
'' History " ; Roberts. " New York " (American Commonwealth Series).' 



CHAPTER VII 

STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT 

Spain, as we have noticed, laid claim to North America 
by right of discovery and exploration and on account of 
the Pope's decree ; but Spain was too weak to hold it, 
except certain portions, especially after the defeat of the 
Armada, in 1588. France and England then became 
rival claimants.^ Their claims conflicted, and the result 
was a contest, covering many years, for the possession of 
the continent. This contest is sometimes called the Hun- 
dred Years' War. 

French Explorers and Settlements 

Champlain. — Before the founding of Jamestown the 
French had begun to settle in Canada. The first perma- 
nent French settlement in Canada was at Quebec, on the 
St. Lawrence, founded by Champlain in 1608. 

The next year Champlain discovered and explored the 
beautiful lake that bears his name. Here on the banks of 
this lake Champlain made a blunder which no doubt had 
much to do with bringing about the downfall of his nation 
in America in later years. While exploring with a band 
of Algonquin Indians, Champlain attacked and routed a 
band of Iroquois. The Algonquins and Iroquois^ had 
been bitter enemies for generations, and from this time 

1 For the grounds of each country's claim, see p. 35. 

2 For a notice of these tribes, see pp. 32 and ^^^ 

108 



MARQUETTE AND JOLIET 109 

the powerful Iroquois tribes were hostile to the French. 
On this account the French found it impossible to occupy 
northern New York and the Hudson Valley. They there- 
fore moved westward and occupied the region of the Great 
Lakes. 

Marquette and Joliet. — For many years after the found- 
ing of Quebec bold Frenchmen — soldiers, adventurers, 
fur traders, and priests — roamed through the lake region, 
making new discoveries and preaching the Gospel to the 
Indians. 

Among the most notable of these were the two Jesuit 
priests, Marquette and Joliet. These two, with a few com- 
panions, set out, in 1673, for the treeless plains of Illinois and 
the great river flowing southward, of which they had heard. 
They reached the Mississippi and floated with its current 
for hundreds of miles, probably as far as the mouth of the 
Arkansas. They then returned as far northward as the 
Illinois River, ascended it, and crossed the country to Lake 
Michigan. From there Joliet hastened back to Canada to 
tell the story of their wanderings and Marquette remained 
in the wilderness to preach to the savages. His dead body 
was afterward found kneeling by a rude altar of his own 
making. 

La Salle. — Still greater were the journeys of the 
dauntless Frenchman La Salle. In 1682, the year of 
the founding of Philadelphia by Penn, La Salle floated 
down the Mississippi to its mouth, took possession of the 
great central valley of the continent in the name of France, 
and named it Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV. 

La Salle had conceived the idea of holding the great 
basin for France by means of forts. He returned to France 
and induced his king to plant a colony in Louisiana. With 
four vessels he sailed for the Gulf of Mexico, but missing 



no . SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the mouth of the Mississippi, he landed on the shore of 
Texas. Most of his followers returned to France, but the 
gallant leader, with a few companions, remained and built 
a fort. Strife soon arose among them, and La Salle was 
killed by two of his countrymen. Thus perished one of 
the greatest of American explorers, one whose name, next 
to that of De Soto, will ever be linked with the greatest of 
American rivers. 

Three Earlier Wars 

French Canada grew steadily, but slowly, between the 
time of Champlain and the death of La Salle. Settle- 
ments were scattered here and there along the St. Law- 
rence and the Great Lakes, the settlers being chiefly 
missionaries or fur traders. 

The English and French in North America were not on 
friendly terms, and whenever a war broke out between 
France and England, it was sure to extend to America. 

King William's War, 1690-1697. — When Wilham and 
Mary came to the throne of England, in 1689, the French 
king declared in favor of James, the dethroned English 
monarch, who had taken refuge in France. A war soon 
followed. In America it began by a series of Indian mas- 
sacres, brought on by French agitators. Dover, New 
Hampshire, was attacked at dead of night. The town 
was burned and most of the inhabitants murdered. The 
same fate befell Pemaquid, Maine, Schenectady, New 
York, and other towns. ^ This was in 1690, at the time 

1 Many were the heroic deeds of those days of savage warfare. One of 
the most notable was that of Hannah Dustin, the wife of a farmer near Haver- 
hill, Massachusetts. She saw her home burned by the savages, and her infant 
child dashed to death against a tree, while she and a neighbor named Mary 
Neff were carried away captive. It was not long till she planned her escape. 



QUEEN ANNE'S WAR, 1702-1713 m 

when Jacob Leisler had control of New York, as we 
noticed in our account of that colony. 

This same year Sir William Phipps captured Port Royal, 
in Nova Scotia, and then led a naval expedition against 
Quebec. A land force was at the same time sent against 
Montreal. Both failed, and at the coming of peace in 
1697 nothing had been settled. Port Royal was given 
back to the French. 

Queen Anne's War, 1702-1713. — The next of the colonial 
wars is known as Queen Anne's War, because Anne, the 
sister of Queen Mary, was then the sovereign of England. 
The war first broke out in Europe from causes that we 
need not notice. 

In America it began in the usual way — with Indian 
massacres. Deerfield, Massachusetts, was one of the first 
towns to fall a victim. On a cold morning in February, 
1704, the town was attacked by several hundred French 
and Indians ; many of the people were slain, and others 
were carried into captivity.^ Port Royal, Nova Scotia, was 
again captured by the English after a third trial and was 
now named AnnapoHs, in honor of Queen Anne. 

A great fleet, bearing twelve hundred men, was then 
fitted out for the capture of Quebec. It sailed from Bos- 

To prevent being followed, and to avenge the murder of her babe, she reached 
a desperate resolve. Twelve Indians, nine of whom were men, lay asleep 
about them when she and her companion and a boy, who was also a captive, 
rose at midnight, and, with well-directed blows, killed ten of them, sparing 
only a squaw and a boy, made their escape, and returned to their homes. 

1 Among the captives were the minister, Williams, his wife, and five children. 
Mrs. Williams soon perished by the tomahawk. The rest were afterward res- 
cued, except a seven-year-old daughter. Manv years later a white woman in 
Indian garb appeared at Deerfield. It proved to be the daughter of Mr. 
Williams. She had married a Mohawk chief. Her friends besought her to 
remain with them ; but her heart was with her dusky husband and half-breed 
children; she refused to remain with the friends of her childhood. 



112 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ton with high hopes in August, 171 1, but the effort came 
to nothing and Canada was not conquered. In 171 3 a 
treaty of peace was made, and by it Nova Scotia and New- 
foundland came finally into the^possession of the English. 

King George's War, ■8:^44^448. — Thirty years passed 
between the close of Queen Anne's War and the third of 
the colonial wars, known as King George's War, because 
George II was then king of England. During that period 
of thirty years, the French built a powerful fortress on Cape 
Breton Island, in the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and 
called it Louisburg. 

But the French did not stop at this. To make good 
their claim to the Mississippi Valley they built a chain of 
forts from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, about sixty in all. 
They also planted several colonies on the gulf coast. In 
1 71 8 they founded New Orleans. 

King George's War, as it was known in America, was one 
of those dreadful European conflicts of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, which involved most of the nations of Europe. Again 
we find France and England on opposite sides, and again 
was the European conflict reflected in America. 

The one great event on this side of the Atlantic was the 
capture of the great French fort at the mouth of the St. 
Lawrence. Louisburg was by far the most powerful 
fortress in America. It had cost $6,000,000 and was 
twenty years in building. A hundred cannons frowned 
from its walls. To reduce this fort a fleet of a hundred 
vessels sailed from Boston in the spring of I745- After a 
fierce bombardment of six weeks, the French surrendered, 
and the British flag soon waved over the walls of Louisburg. 

The colonists were proud of their great victory ; but 
imagine their chagrin when, on the coming of peace, in 
1748, Louisburg was coolly given back to France. This 



THE OHIO VALLEY 1 13 

giving back of the great prize won by the Americans was 
one of the first steps by which they were led to see that 
American affairs should be settled on this side of the 
Atlantic, and not by a power three thousand miles away. 

The French and Indian War 

The three wars we have noticed were but skirmishes 
compared with the greater one that was to follow. This 
last of the colonial wars is usually termed the French and 
Indian War, because most of the Indians were united with 
the French in fighting the English. The three wars had 
settled nothing. The first subject of dispute after the close 
of the last war was the bounds of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, 
which now belonged to England. The French declared that 
Acadia comprised the peninsula of Nova Scotia alone, 
while the English claimed a large part of the mainland as 
belonging to Nova Scotia. 

The Ohio Valley. — While this question remained un- 
settled, a more important one arose — concerning the 
ownership of the Ohio Valley. The French claimed this 
great fertile region as a part of the discoveries of Marquette 
and La Salle. The English claimed it as a part of Vir- 
ginia, granted by the early charters (based on the Cabot 
discoveries). Another ground of the English claim was 
that the territory was claimed by the Iroquois, who were 
acknowledged to be British subjects. 

Each country began to move toward occupying this vast 
region. The French sent a small company of men down 
the Allegheny and Ohio rivers to take possession of the 
country. The English formed the Ohio Company and 
King George granted it half a million acres between the 
Monongahela and Kanawha rivers, on the condition that 



TI4 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the company make a settlement and build a fort in the 
territory. 

First Public Service of Washington. — Soon after the 
Ohio Company was formed the French made an important 
move. They began building forts in what is now north- 
western Pennsylvania. One of these, named Fort Le 




Washincton Rkturnino from FuKr Lk t'.<i:uF 

Boeuf, about twenty miles from the present city of Erie, 
was put under the command of Saint-Pierre. 

This move of the French alarmed Governor Dinwiddle 
of Virginia,^ who claimed that territory as part of Virginia. 
The governor therefore determined to send a messenger to 
Saint-Pierre to inform him that the entire Allegheny 
Valley belonged to Virginia. When asked whom he would 

1 Dinwiddie was the lieutenant governor, tlie nominal governor residing 
in England. 



MAP OK THE 

MIDDLE COLONIES 

JlSr BEFORE THE 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 




77" Longitude West 76' from Greenwich 75 



A VIEW OF THE TWO PEOPLES i i 5 

send, the governor replied, '* I shall send George Washing- 
ton ; he is very young, but he is the bravest man in the 
colony." 

George Washington was a young surveyor of twenty-one 
years. ^ He was not only brave and stalwart ; he was 
especially noted for his moral character and his fidelity to 
truth and duty. With a companion named Christopher 
Gist, a famous woodman, Washington started on his peri- 
lous journey late in the year 1753. Over hills and moun- 
tains, swamps, marshes, and frozen rivers he carried the 
letter of Virginia's governor. Reaching Fort Le Boeuf, 
he delivered the message and set out with Gist to return on 
foot at dead of winter. While attempting to cross the 
Allegheny River on a raft, Washington was thrown into 
the icy waters. Regaining the raft, he reached an island, 
where they spent a bitterly cold night. Next morning the 
river was frozen solid and they crossed on the ice. In 
January, 1754, the young surveyor reported to the governor, 
after an absence of seventy-eight days. 

A View of the Two Peoples. — The French refused to 
vacate the Allegheny Valley, and the year after Washing- 
ton made his journey they moved down the river and built 
Fort Duquesne on the site of Pittsburg. It was now evident 
that there would be war, and that this war would decide 
which of the two great nations would become dominant in 
North America. 

The English occupied but a narrow margin of the 
continent along the Atlantic coast, scarcely more than 
a hundred miles wide, from Maine to Georgia. The 
French were thinly scattered over a territory twenty 
times as great as that occupied by the English ; but 

1 See p. 126. 



Il6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the English population was twenty times as great as the 
French.^ 

The English had come to America to build homes and 
to secure religious freedom and happy family life. The 
French came to convert the Indians to Christianity, to 
engage in the fur trade, and to build up a great new France. 
The English would build up a new England by migrating 
in large numbers ; the French would build up a new 
France, not by coming in large numbers, but by making 
Frenchmen of the Indians. 

The French treated the Indians as brethren, adopted 
their customs, and often married into their tribes. The 
English, on the other hand, though often friendly with the 
red men, never received them as of their own class, never 
adopted their customs nor invited their confidence. More- 
over, the French wanted furs, which the Indians were ever 
willing to furnish, while the English wanted land, which 
the Indians were unwilling to give. 

The result of all this was that the Indians took the 
side of the French — except the Iroquois who had been 
embittered against the French by Champlain many years 
before.^ 

Again, the English and French differed greatly in their 
religion and forms of government. The French were all 
Roman CathoUcs and they were wholly without self-govern- 
ment. They were governed entirely by the will of their 
king. The English were Protestants ; they were self-gov- 
erning and were wholly separated from one another. 
Herein lay the one great weakness of the English ; they 
could not act together, while the French were a unit and 
ready to move at their king's command. 

1 The English papulation exceeded 1,200,000 ; the French was about 60,000. 

2 See p. 108. ■ 



THE ALBANY CONGRESS 



117 



The Albany Congress. — The far-sighted Franklin saw 
this weakness and at a colonial Congress, held at Albany, 
New York, in 1754, he brought forward a plan of union. 
But this plan was rejected by the Enghsh king because it 
gave too much power to the people, and by the colonists 
because it gave too much power to the king. The result 
was that the Enghsh plunged into this war without union, 
and the result was disaster to the Enghsh and success to 
the French during the first two or three years of the war. 

The Four Objective Points. — At 
the opening of the war the French 
were in possession of four impor- 
tant points which the English felt 
that they must capture in order 
to win in the great contest. These 
four points were as follows : — 

I. Fort Duquesne, where Pitts- 
burg now stands, the key to the 
Ohio Valley. 2. Fort Niagara, 
which controlled the fur trade of 
the lake region. 3. Ticonderoga 
and Crown Point, which controlled 

the route from New York to Canada. 4- Louisburg, the 
gateway to the St. Lawrence Valley and the city of Quebec. 
Braddock's Defeat at Fort Duquesne. — One Sunday in 
February, 1755, a British general of stately bearing and 
in bright uniform came to the home of Governor Dinwiddle 
in Virginia. ** He is, I think, a very fine officer. . . . 
He and I live in great harmony," wrote the governor to a 
friend. It was General Edward Braddock, who had been 
sent from England to conduct the war against the French. 
Three months later General Braddock with a motley 
army of thirteen hundred men was marching over the moun- 




General Braddock 



Il8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tains toward Fort Duquesne. The line of march was four 
miles long and the men made the woods ring with their 
shouts and music. The young surveyor, George Wash- 
ington, was a member of Braddock's staff, Washington 
cautioned the general against the Indian mode of warfare ; 
but Braddock refused to heed the warning. He is said 
to have exclaimed, " High times when a buckskin boy 




The Fall of Braddock 



assumes to advise a British officer." ^ As the army 
approached the French fort it was met by several hundred 
French and Indians, who opened a murderous fire from 
behind trees and underbrush 



The British fired again and 



^The word "buckskin " referred to the buckskin breeches worn by the colo- 
nists. The war had actually begun the year before when Washington with a 
band of militia fired on the French led by Jumonville, at Great Meadows. 
Jumonville and a few others were killed, but Washington afterward capitu- 
lated at Fort Necessity (July 4, 1754). 



DISPERSION OF THE ACADIANS 119 

again at their invisible enemy. Braddock galloped to and 
fro with great gallantry amid the hail of bullets, cheering 
his men. For three hours the English stood the slaughter. 
Three fourths of them were cut down when Braddock 
ordered a retreat. Four horses had been shot under him 
and he mounted a fifth, when a bullet was buried in his 
lungs ; he pitched from his horse and lay quivering and 
speechless on the ground. The ruined army was soon in 
full retreat. Four days later General Braddock died. His 
body was buried in the middle of the road, as he had 
requested, and lest the spot be discovered by the Indians, 
the army — men, horses, and wagons — passed over his 
grave. 

Dispersion of the Acadians. — Nova Scotia, known to the 
French as Acadia, had become an English possession at 
the close of Queen Anne's War. But the inhabitants were 
French, some seventeen thousand in all. They were an 
ignorant, industrious people, who lived apart from the rest 
of the world. They refused to acknowledge the British 
king as their sovereign and fostered a spirit of hostility to 
the English. After bearing with them for many years the 
English decided on a harsh m.easure — nothing less than 
the removal by force of the Acadians from their homes 
and scattering them among the English colonies. 

An expedition commanded by Colonel Monckton 
reached Acadia from Boston early in June, 1755 — about five 
weeks before the defeat of Braddock at Fort Duquesne. 
The cruel business was soon begun. The simple natives 
were crowded into British ships, famihes usually being kept 
together, and launched for unknown shores, while the low- 
ing of herds and howling of dogs could alone be heard from 
the desolate farms so lately the scene of peace and plenty. 
The Acadians were scattered from New Haven to Georgia. 



I20 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Some of them afterward found their way back to Acadia ; 
others went to Louisiana, where their descendants are still 
to be found ; but the majority remained among the English 
and never again met their kindred from whom they had 
been separated.^ 

Two other expeditions for 1755 were undertaken by the 
English. One of these, against Fort Niagara, resulted in 

failure ; the other, against 
Crown Point, was success- 
ful. In a battle near Lake 
George, the French com- 
mander was defeated and 
slain. This was the only 
British success of the year. 
Declaration of War. — All 
that we have related took 
place before war was. de- 
clared between France and 
England ; but in the spring 
of 1756 each nation de- 
clared war against the 
other. 

The years 1756 and 1757 
witnessed little change in 
the situation. In i 756 Colonel John Armstrong with a band 
of three hundred men destroyed the Indian town of Kit- 
tanning on the Allegheny River, and the next year Lord 
Loudon, who had become the British commander, led a 
fleet against the strong French fort, Louisburg ; but he 




MoN 



1 About six thousand of the Acadians were deported, more than ten thou- 
sand having evaded the English by escaping to the forests. The teacher 
should see that the pupils read Longfellow's " Evangeline " in connection 
with this story. 



WILLIAM PITT 121 

failed to capture it. Meantime the French had found a 
great commander in the person of Marquis de Montcalm. 
While Loudon was proceeding to Louisburg, Montcalm 
stole through the forests of northern New York with an 
army and captured Fort William Henry, on the banks of 
Lake George, after a bloody siege. 

Three years had now passed since the beginning of the 
war and the English had met with disaster on every side. 
Not an EngHsh fort or settlement could now be found in 
the Ohio Valley or the basin of the St. Lawrence. But 
this was all to be changed in the years that followed, and 
the change was to be effected by one great man. 

William Pitt. — The greatest Englishman of his gener- 
ation was William Pitt, later known as the Earl of Chatham. 
Pitt, as a member of the English Cabinet, came in control 
of the war in 1757. The next year he planned and accom- 
plished great things. He sent a powerful fleet, bearing an 
army under General Amherst, to capture Louisburg. For 
many weeks the bombardment was terrific. At last the 
French raised the white flag and for the second time this 
great French stronghold at the mouth of the St. Lawrence 
passed into English hands. 

Another army, led by General Forbes, assisted by 
George Washington, was sent by way of Pennsylvania 
against Fort Duquesne. When they reached the place, 
they found only smoking ruins. The French had fired the 
fort and fled, and this key to the Ohio Valley, which had 
cost Braddock and his army so dearly, was now secured 
without a blow. The place was then named Pittsburg in 
honor of William Pitt, the great Englishman who had in- 
spired the expedition. 

One more English success marked the year 1758 — the 
capture of Fort Frontenac at the head of the St. Lawrence ; 



122 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and one failure — the defeat of a large British army at 
Ticonderoga by Montcalm. On the whole, the year was 
very successful to British arms, and Pitt now determined 
on a great project, no less than the conquest of all Canada. 
Fall of Quebec. — Various expeditions were planned for 
1759, the most important of which was for the capture 
of Quebec. To effect this Pitt sent an army under James 

Wolfe, who had been with Am- 
herst the year before in the cap- 
ture of Louisburg. 

It was late in June when the 
British army stood before the city 
of Quebec, which was guarded 
by Montcalm. The summer 
passed and nothing was yet ac- 
complished. At length in Sep- 
tember Wolfe determined to scale 
the heights that led to a plateau 

overlooking the city and known 
General Wolfe '^ ■' 

as the Plains of Abraham. This 
had been left unguarded because it was supposed to be 
inaccessible from the river. After a painful night of toil 
the English gained the heights from which they could 
throw shells over the city. A fierce battle ensued. The 
English won and captured Quebec, but they lost their 
brave commander. General Wolfe was among the slain. 
Montcalm also received a mortal wound. ^ 

The war ended soon after the fall of Quebec. Fort 

1 The death of Wolfe was strangely similar to that of Montcalm. After 
receiving a mortal wound he was informed that the P'rench were in full flight, 
whereupon he said in a low, sweet voice, "Now God be praised,! die happy." 
When Montcalm was told by his physician that his wound was mortal, he 
said, " I am glad of it. ... I am happy that I shall not live to see the sur- 
render of Quebec." 





Before the French and Indian War. 




After thio French and Indian War. 



THE TREATY OF PEACE 



123 



Niagara had already surrendered to the English, who thus 
gained full control of the upper Ohio Valley. Montreal 
fell into their hands the next year. The feeble efforts of 
the French to retake Quebec were fruitless. The war was 
over. France had lost everything. 

The Treaty of Peace. — More than three years passed 
after the fall of Quebec before a treaty of peace was 
signed, owing to the terrific conflict still raging in Europe, 
known as the Seven Years' War. Then came the treaty, 
signed in Paris in 1763. France gave up all her posses- 
sions in the New World, except two little islands in the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence and a few in the West Indies. Eng- 
land received Canada and all of North America east of the 
Mississippi, which she did not already possess ; while to 
Spain, which had also been involved in the war, was ceded 
New Orleans and that vast tract west of the Mississippi 
known as Louisiana. 

Results of the War. — The chief results of the French 
and Indian War, aside from the magnitude of the land 
cessions, were: i. The war made England the greatest 
colonial power in the world. 2. It determined the trend 
of future civilization in North America — that the laws, 
customs, and institutions of the Anglo-Saxon race, rather 
than of the Latin races of southern Europe, should pre- 
vail, 3. It trained the colonists in the arts of warfare, 
taught them their need of union, and lessened their sense 
of dependence on England. ---^ 

Conspiracy of Pontiac. — The defeat of the French left 
the Algonquin Indians unprotected. They determined, 
therefore, to massacre or drive aw^ay all the English west 
of the Alleghany Mountains. Led by a very able chief 
named Pontiac, they formed a conspiracy to attack, on the 
same day, all the English posts in the lake region and 



124 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

along the frontier of Pennsylvania and Virginia. So 
exact was their calculation that on a certain day in June 
1763, determined by a change of the moon, the attacks 
were made almost at the same hour. On that day all the 
English forts in that vast region fell into the hands of the 
Indians, except Fort Duquesne (now called Fort Pitt, or 
Pittsburg), Detroit, and Niagara. 

The war continued at intervals for three years, when the 
Indians yielded and agreed to a treaty of peace. Pontiac 
went westward and at length perished at the hand of one 
of his own race. He was buried on the soil where St. 
Louis afterward rose, and " the race whom he hated with 
such burning rancor trample with unceasing footsteps over 
his forgotten grave." ^ 

SUMMARY 

Spain, France, and England were at first rival claimants of North 
America, and it required many years of warfare to decide which should 
become dominant. 

French Explorers. — Champlain founded Quebec in 1608 and explored 
parts of the St. Lawrence Valley. Marquette and Joliet explored large 
portions of the lake region and the Mississippi Valley. La Salle 
descended the Mississippi in 1682, named the country Louisiana, and 
took possession for France. 

The three earlier colonial wars had almost no effect in settling the 
question of territorial possession between France and England. 

The French and Indian War. — The immediate cause was the claims 
of both France and England on the Ohio Valley. 

The French held territory twenty times as great as the English, but 
the French population was but one twentieth that of the English. The 
French were Catholics, the English Protestants. The Algonquin 
Indians sided with the French, the Iroquois with the English. The 
French were governed by their king, the English were almost self- 
governing. 

The English, for want of united effort, lost steadily for three years, 

1 Parkman's " Conspiracy of Pontiac," Voh II, p. 313. 



THE TREATY OF P 

after which William Pitt became master and tui 
French power in America ceased with the surrena 
tember, 1759). _ 

The Treaty of Paris (1763) divided North America between E 
and Spain, France having lost everything. This war determine 
form of civilization for Canada and the future United States, 1 
England the greatest of colonial powers, and awakened in the colonist, 
a sense of their strength, and of the necessity of united effort. _ 



mc. 



NOTES 

Pontiac's Methods. -The Indians were very skillful in surprising the various 
En-lish garrisons on the fatal day in June. 1763. At Detroit where Pontiac was 
leader in person, the plan was for the warriors to enter the fort on a pretended 
friendly visit each concealing a deadly weapon, and at a given signal to fall upon 
the English and murder them to the last man. But the plot was revealed to the 
En-lish by an Indian girl and the garrison was saved. At Michilimackimac the 
Indians arranged to play a game of ball within the fort. The squaws were to stand 
by with concealed weapons. At a certain signal the players ran to the squaws, 
seized the weapons, and began the bloody work. The English were unprepared 
and few of them escaped alive. At Presque Isle the garrison surrendered after a 
terrible seige of two days. Sandusky was captured by treachery, and every mari 
in the fort was put to death except the commander, Ensign Paulli, who was earned 
to Detroit as a trophy. He was afterward given his choice of two thmgs - to be put 
to death, or to marry a squaw. He was not put to death. (Drake's " Makmg of 
the Ohio Valley States," p. 76.) ..,„.• c- 1 1 

Early Life of Washington. -Soon after the close of the Civil War in England 
in 1649 a great manv of the Cavaliers, or king's party, came to America because 
they did not like theVuritan governuient. Among them was John Washington, a 
wealthy man, who purchased a large plantation on the bank of the Potomac River. 
He was the great-grandfather of George Washington, who was born in Virginia on 
February 22 1732 -one year before the founding of Georgia, and fitly years after 
the founding of Philadelphia. George Washington had two half-brothers much 
older than himself. Both were sent to England to be educated, and George would 
have been sent also but for the sad fact that his father died when he was but 
eleven vears old. George went to private schools and had tutors, but never 
attended college. While yet a boy he decided that he would like to be a sailoi, .n 
the hope that sometime he would become an ofiicer in the kmg s navy. His 
mother at length consented to let him go. His trunk was packed and on the wharf, 
but when he went to bid his mother good-by, he found her weeping and so sad 
that he gave up going and remained with her, and he never crossed the ocean 
Lawrence Washington, who inherited his father's estate, was very fond of his half- 
brother George. He was a man of frail health and he went to the West Indies in 
the hope of recovering, taking George with him. Here George took the smallpox 



;RY OF THE UNITED STATES 



- between life and death. Soon after their return Lavv- 

, leaving George his entire estate. This was about the time 

inwiddie sent him on the long journey through the wilderness of 

.lia. Thus George Washington at tlie beginning of his manhood became 




Mrs. Washinci-on I'l'.ksuADKs c]i;()K(;i.; not io co ro Sea 

one of the richest landowners in America. He was a robust, athletic young man 
and could not be excelled as a horseman and marksman. 



REFERENCES 

The general histories nienlioned in connection with the preceding 
chapters, and, most important of all, the works of Francis Parkman. 
The various volumes of Parkman on the French and English in America 
are delightfully written, and the fullest we have on this subject. 



CHAPTER VIII 

COLONIAL LIFE 

Wk are ncarinf^ the close of the colonial j^eriod, and be- 
fore treating of the conflict which brought American in- 
dependence it is interesting to make a brief study of life 
in the colonies.^ The difference between our mode of life 
and that of colonial days is very striking indeed. When 
we walk through our city streets, we see street cars and 
automobiles and electric lights and " sky scrapers," all of 
which were unknown to the colonists. In our homes we 
have sewing machines and stoves and coal aiul matches 
and many other things that were never used by them. No 
one before the Revolution ever heard of a steamboat, or a 
railroad, or a telephone, or a mower and reaper, or a tele- 
graph. These and scores of other things that now seem 
necessary to our happiness have all come into use within 
the past hundred years. 

Population and Social Rank 

At the close of the P'rench and Indian War the popula- 
tion of the thirteen colonies was about 1,600,000 — less 
than that of the city of New York or Chicago at present. 
About one fourth of the people were negro slaves, and 
many of them were indented servants. Virginia ranked 

^ It is suggested to the teacher that this cha})ter be studied by the pupils 
with exceptional thoroughness. This chapter is in part an abridgment of 
Chapter X of my " History of the United States." 

127 



28 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




A Colonial Child— Robert Gibbs, Four and a Half Years Old, 1670 



NATIONALITIES 



29 



first in population, Massachusetts came second, and Penn- 
sylvania third. The largest city was Philadelphia with 
25,000 people ; the only other cities that exceeded 5000 
were Boston, New York, and Charleston. Nearly all the 
people lived east of the Alleghany Mountains ; in one 
colony only, Pennsylvania, had the settlers crossed the 
mountains in any considerable numbers. 

Nationalities. — In New England and the South nearly 
all the people were English, a few being Scotch-Irish and 
in the South, Huguenots 
and Germans. In New 
York the majority were 
Dutch ; in Pennsylvania 
the Germans and Scots 
outnumbered the Eng- 
lish, and in Delaware 
there were many Swedes. 
In nearly all the colonies 
there were some Irish, the 
greater number being in 
the Middle Colonies. 

The Slaves. — Social 
lines were strictly drawn 
in most of the colonies 
and the negro slaves held 
the lowest place. All 
the colonies had slaves ; 
but perhaps four fifths 
of them all were south of Mason and Dixon's line. 

In New England and the Middle Colonies the slaves 
were for the most part domestic servants. They were 
usually well treated and in some cases admitted to the 
family circle. 




A Pumpkin Hood, 1800 



130 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



In Virginia and Maryland the slave was a body servant 
to his master, a domestic servant, or a plantation laborer, 
living a life of ignorance and contentment with his family. 
Among these were mechanics and artisans, trained for 
various duties about the plantation. 

As we go farther south we find a severer form of slavery. 
Here the blacks were brought from Africa or the West Indies 




The Good Girl and her Wheel 
From a child's book of the colonial period 



in large numbers, and under the lash of the taskmaster they 
wore their lives away in the rice swamps in unrequited toil. 
Redemptioners. — Next above the slaves stood the 
indented white servants, composed of three classes. 
I. Criminals thrust on the colonies by England. They 
escaped imprisonment or death by a long period of service 
in America. 2. Waifs from the streets of London, sold 
by their inhuman parents or stolen by cruel traders and 



THE MIDDLE CLASS 131 

sold to servitude in America. 3. Redemptioners, often 
called freewillers, who of their own free will engaged to 
serve several years in the colonies, usually not more than 
five years, in payment for their passage across the sea. 
When a shipmaster arrived with his human cargo, he would 
advertise the fact, and the farmers and merchants would 
come and bargain with him for the services of the persons 
he had brought. The freewillers, after serving their time, 
usually merged into the great middle class and became 
good citizens. 

The criminals sent to the colonies were seldom reformed 
by their servitude. Criminals were punished in various 
ways — by hanging, flogging, ducking, by exposure in the 
pillory or stocks, but seldom by imprisonment. 

The Middle Class. — There was no *' laboring class" in 
the colonies, and next above the indented servants were 
the small farmers, traders, shopkeepers, and fishermen. 
These, especially in the northern and middle colonies, con- 
stituted the great majority of the people, the rank and file, 
the bone and sinew of the land. This class was generally 
religious, prosperous, contented, moderately educated, not 
highly cultured ; the moral standard was probably higher 
than in any other country in the world. 

The Ruling Class. — At the top of the social scale stood 
the ruling class, composed in New England of the minis- 
ters, magistrates, and professional men ; in New York of 
these classes and, above all, of the patroons, or great land- 
holders along the Hudson; while in the South the owners 
of the great plantations were uppermost in sotiety and 
near them stood the professional men. 

In all the colonies social lines were more strictly drawn 
than they now are. In some colonies the st3de of a lady's 
dress was regulated by law and no one was permitted to 



132 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

dress ** above his degree." Worshipers in church and 
students in college were obliged to occupy seats according 
to their social standing. But with all the class distinctions 
it was not unusual in those days, as at present, for an as- 
piring youth to rise from the lower walks of life and take 
a-place among the higher classes. 

Occupations and Customs 

Colonial America was a land of farmers. When our 
forefathers came to America, they found no large cities 
with openings for the industrious ; they found only the 
virgin soil, valleys, hills, and boundless plains covered 
with forests. From these they had to remove the timbers 
and delve the soil for their daily bread. Hence a nation 
of farmers. A few ministers, doctors, merchants, fisher- 
men there had to be, but the great body of the people 
were farmers. 

Home Life in New England. — The New England farm- 
house was built solidly of wood. It contained at least two 
rooms, a "best room" and a kitchen. So little attention 
was given to comfort that the farmhouse would have been 
scarcely endurable in winter but for the great open wood 
fire. The kitchen ceiling was often hung with drying 
apples, seed corn, and various kinds of herbs. It was in 
the kitchen that the family (usually a large one) would 
spend the evenings, sitting about the huge woodfire tell- 
ing stories, shelling nuts, making brooms and the like. 
The furniture was plain, much of it being made by the 
farmer and his sons. 

Many of the rich in or near the cities built fine brick or 
stone mansions and furnished them with the best that 
could be purchased in Europe. 



THE NEW ENGLAND VILLAGE 133 

The New England Village. — The village in New Eng- 
land had wide, shady, unpaved streets partly covered with 
stumps of native trees. Many of the farmers lived in or 
near the villao:e so as to be near the church and the school 



^^^B ^^^^p -" '^ 





Wool Spinning 

and for the better protection in case of Indian attacks. 
There were at least three important buildings in every 
village — the church, the tavern, and the blockhouse. 

The people were summoned to church by the sound of 
a horn or drum. The sermons were very long and during 



134 'SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the service the tithingman with a long rod walked through 
the aisles to keep the people in order. If a man or boy 
fell asleep, he received a rap from the rod, and if a woman 
or girl fell into a doze, she was wakened by the brushing 
of a rabbit's foot attached to the rod. In earlier times 
the men went to church armed, and the minister often 
preached with a musket by his side. 




An Old Tavern 

The tavern was a place for travelers to lodge and also 
a place of general gossip for the villagers. Here they 
would gather to take a social glass (rum, small beer, or 
cider) and to discuss politics and religion. 

The blockhouse was strongly built of logs ; the second 
story extended over the first and was provided with port- 
holes so that the occupants could fire down on an enemy. 
In case of an Indian attack the people would abandon their 
homes and rush to the blockhouse. After King Philip's 
War there was little use for the blockhouse. 



MANUFACTURING AND COMMERCE 



135 



Manufacturing and Commerce. — The soil of New Eng- 
land was not fertile and many of the people became 
fishermen, shipbuilders, sailors, and merchants. Foreign 
commerce was an important industry. Fish, cattle, and 
lumber were sent to the West Indies, to England, or to 
Spain, and molasses and many manufactured articles 



it . THE nuxcE. 

This »s a »igi»t to ^vo us |>a.Ux , 
Ont-e sfH!-!! ne-'o*' wishi'd tt> see aj^iiiii 




Illustration from "Plain Things for Littlf F(M.ks" 

were brought back in return. But the farmers supplied 
many of their own wants. Nearly every one was " handy 
with tools." The farmer and his sons made much of the 
furniture for the household and many implements for the 
farm, while his wife and daughters spun the flax and wove 
it into cloth with which the family was clothed. 

Home Life in New York. — Colonial society in New 



136 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

York was unlike that of any other colony, owing to the 
patroon system. The patroon had a luxurious house, 
large barns, orchards, and broad pasture lands dotted with 
herds of sheep and cattle. His tenants were scattered for 
miles about him. 

The majority of the people were Dutch, and they re- 
tained the habits and customs of their nation for two hun- 
dred years. They were a religious, industrious people. 
They lived in small wooden or brick houses with sanded 
floors, high, steep roofs and, in the villages, with the gable 
ends " notched like steps," turned toward the street. 
Country houses were often placed near together, forming 
a Httle village street. On the stoop the family would sit, 
in summer evenings, chatting with their neighbors, the 
men smoking long Dutch pipes, the women busy with 
their knitting or sewing, and the children playing about 
the yard. No people in America presented a more attrac- 
tive picture of quiet contentment, of thrift and plenty, than 
the Dutch population of New York. 

Industries in New York. — The great valleys of the 
Hudson and the Mohawk were very fertile and the major- 
ity of the people were farmers. But foreign commerce 
and the Indian fur trade were industries of great impor- 
tance. A trader would go into the Indian country laden 
with rum and various trinkets prized by the natives, and 
for them he would receive furs and peltries. He would 
then float down the Hudson and sell his furs to the for- 
eign traders of Manhattan. 

New Jersey. — Almost the sole occupation of the people 
in New Jersey was farming. The people were nearly all 
small farmers and the villages, few in numbers, were 
chiefly centers of farming communities. There were al- 
most no very rich men or great estates and society was 



PENNSYLVANIA 



137 



very democratic. The people were thrifty and honest ; 
houses were seldom locked. The laws and punishments 
were modeled after those of New England. 




Betty Lamps of the Cot.onial Period 



Pennsylvania. — We find a change in the social atmos- 
phere when we cross the Delaware into Pennsylvania. 
Here the Germans and Scotch-Irish made up more than 
half the population. There were also many Irish, Swedes, 
and Welsh, and only in Philadelphia did the English out- 
number all others. Nearly every form of religion was 



138 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

represented in Pennsylvania. First in numbers came the 
Quakers, Lutherans, and Presbyterians, and after these 




A Colonial Musket 



the Dunkards, Moravians, Baptists, Anabaptists, Pietists, 
Menonnites, Methodists, Episcopalians, and Roman Catho- 
lics. And yet with all these nationalities and sects there 
was no colony more contented, happy, and democratic 
than Pennsylvania. The chief industry 
was farming ; the great anthracite coal 
fields had not yet been discovered. The 
soil was rich and the river valleys were 
laden with waving fields of grain every 
year ; the broad meadows and mountain 
slopes were dotted with grazing herds. 
Not all the people were farmers. Some 
were engaged in the fur trade and still 
more in foreign commerce. The iron 
industry was also begun before the close 
of the colonial period. 

Maryland and Virginia. — Again we 
find a great change in the social atmos- 
phere as we cross into Maryland and 
Virginia. Here there was almost no 
town life; villages were few and insignificant. At the head 
of society stood the planter or great landlord ; the plantation 
was the center of all social and industrial activity, and the 
one important product of the plantation was tobacco. In 
the center stood the mansion of the landlord, and around it 




THE FAR SOUTH 



139 



were clustered the barns, offices, tobacco houses, stables, 
and negro huts, the whole presenting the appearance of 
a small village. The planter enjoyed every luxury — 
blooded horses, carriages, and body servants — and his 
dress was fashioned after that of the upper classes in 
England. 




A Foor Stove 



The planter's house was furnished with the best of 
everything that could be purchased in Europe. Many of 
the landlords kept packs of hunting dogs, race horses, and 
the like, and they spent their time in amusements, in 
entertaining strangers, and in poUtics. The labor of the 
plantation was done by slaves. 

The Far South. — As we move mto the Carolinas and 
Georgia we find still another change. Here, especially in 
South Carolina, there were great plantations, but the land- 
lord did not live among his servants. The great staple 



140 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



was rice, and the great rice planters, who were men of 
education and culture, resided in Charleston. They spent 

but few months of 
'** the year in the ma- 
larial regions where 
the rice was pro- 
duced. The work 
was done by herds 
of slaves, driven by 
hired overseers. 

The aristocracy 
of the South was 
chivalric and pictur- 
esque, though not 
without its short- 
comings, and what- 
ever our prejudice 
against caste, it is 
a remarkable fact 
that it was this old 
aristocracy of a sin- 
gle colony that fur- 
nished the new-born repubUc with its greatest soldier, half 
the first cabinet, many of its leading statesmen, and four of 
its first five Presidents. 

There were many small farmers also at the South, slave 
owners on a small scale. They were considered respect- 
able people, and it was not unusual for men of this class 
to rise by dint of genius, by thrift, and industry, to the 
first class, as in the case of John Marshall and Patrick 
Henry. Between these small farmers and the lower 
classes, composed of servants and slaves, there was an 
almost impassible barrier. 




A Flax Brake 



EDUCATION IN NEW ENGLAND 



141 



Education and Practice of Medicine . 

In our account of the several colonies we have given 
special notice to the religion of the people ; it remains to 
notice their means of education. 

Education in New England. — Next to religion the Puri- 
tans valued education. But six years after the founding 
of Boston a college was founded at Newtown (1636), now 
Cambridge; this grew into Harvard College, so named be- 




An Old Schoolhouse 



cause the Rev. John Harvard left it a portion of his 
estate. In 1647 ^^^ General Court of Massachusetts or- 
dered that a common school be maintained in every town 
of fifty families and a grammar school in the larger towns. 
The term of school was seldom more than four months in 
the year. The teacher was often the minister of the parish, 
the innkeeper, or a student earning his way through col- 
lege. Public school teaching as a profession, and regular 
trained teachers, who now constitute one of the most hon- 
ored classes of our society, were unknown in colonial times. 



142 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



The text-books were dull and cumbrous and in no way to 
be compared with those of to-day. For long weary hours 
the children pondered over the New England Primer, sit- 
ting on high seats, 
often backless, 
their feet danghng 
above the floor. 

In New York, 
New Jersey, and 
Pennsylvania the 
schools fell below 
those of New Eng- 
land, but the effort 
to educate the chil- 
dren was most 
commendable. 
King's College 
(now Columbia) 
was founded in 
New York in 1754 
and Princeton in 
New Jersey eight 
years earlier. Be- 
tween these two in 
point of time the 
University of Pennsylvania was founded (1749). Schools 
for the masses of the people in all these colonies were few 
and of a poor quality. 

In the South the rich employed private tutors to teach 
their children, or, in some cases, sent them to England to 
be educated. Among the poorer classes there was almost 
no opportunity .to educate the children. It is true, how- 
ever, that there were a few free schools in Maryland before 



( 9) 

17. Birc not (hy bread, bur 
break if, buc not with flovenly 
Fingers, nor with thcfarae where- 
with «hou taken up thy meat, 

i8 Dip not thy Meat in the 
Sawct. 

19. Take not fait wiiha greazy 
Knife. 

io Spit not, cough not, nor 
blow thy Noie ai Table if it may 
be avoided j but if there be ne- 
ccfTity, do it afide, and without 
much noife. 

If. Lean not thy Elbow on 
(he Table, or on the back of thy 
Chair. 

2 1. Stuff not (hy mouth fo 
as to fill chy Checks ; be content 
with fmaller Mouchfuls. 

23. Blow not fhy Mfat, but 
with Pa,tience wait till ic be cool. 

24.. Sup not Broth at the Ta- 
ble, but eat It with a Spoon. 



Page from "The School of Manners" 



THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE 143 

1700 and by 1743 there were two free negro schools in 
Charleston, while Virginia can boast the second oldest 
college in the colonies, William and Mary — founded in 
1693. 

The practice of medicine was in a cruder state even than 
the educational facilities. The village doctor was almost 
as important a personage as the minister. His medical 
education was meager, often consisting of a short appren- 
ticeship with some noted physician. No medical college 
existed in the colonies before the Revolution. In addition 
to the regular physicians there were many quacks who 
hawked their special cures about the country, but these 
were not peculiar to colonial times — we have them still. 

Means of Travel; Mails; Newspapers 

It is a strange fact that until steam navigation came 
into use about a hundred years ago the world had made no 
improvement in the methods of traveling for two thousand 
years. 

Travel in the Colonies. — Much of the traveling done in 
colonial days was by the waterways. But for the rivers, 
lakes, and bays the people would have seen and known 
little of one another outside their respective neighborhoods. 

Travel by land was on foot and on horseback and by 
the Indian trails. Then came the stagecoach. There 
were few good roads, the best being in Pennsylvania, all 
centering in Philadelphia, and on these at certain seasons 
the great Conestoga wagons lumbered into the busy city, 
laden with the products of the farm. Many towns were 
without roads. Long journeys were made on horseback 
or on foot. 

A governor of Massachusetts relates that he made ex- 
tensive journeys afoot, being borne across swamps on the 



144 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



back of an Indian guide. A farmer went to church astride 
a horse, with his wife sitting behind him on a cushion 
called a pilHon, while the young people walked, stopping 
to change their shoes before reaching the meeting house. 

Coaches and chaises were few before 1700. Not until 
1766 was there a regular stagecoach line between New 
York and Philadelphia. The journey then required three 
days. Ten years later a new line was started which made 




CoNESioGA Wagon 

the journey in two days. This was called the '' Flying 
Machine." 

A stage journey from one part of the country to another 
was as comfortless as could well be imagined. The coach 
was without springs, and the seats were hard and often 
backless. The horses were jaded and worn, and the roads 
were rough with bowlders and stumps of trees, or furrowed 
with ruts and quagmires. The journey was usually begun 
at three o'clock in the morning and after eighteen hours of 
jogging over the rough roads, the weary traveler was put 
down at a country inn whose bed and board were such as 
few horny-handed laborers of to-day Vv^ould endure. Long 



before daybreak the next 
morning a blast from the 
driver's horn summoned 
him to the renewal of 
his journey. If the coach 
stuck fast in a mire, as it 
often did, the passen- 
gers must alight and 
help Hft it out. When 
they came to a river, 
they found no bridge. 
The crossing was rhade 
at the peril of all, on a 
rude raft of timbers, or a 
number of canoes lashed 
together. After five or 
six days of such torture 
the traveler from Boston 
found himself in the city 
of New York. 

The mail was carried 
by postriders, who fol- 
lowed the main roads as 
far as there were any ; 
on reaching the roadless 
settlements they found 
their way through the 
forest as best they could 
by the trails and bridle 
paths. The postman 
left a city, not at regular 
intervals, but only when 
he received enough mail 



TRAVEL IN THE COLONIES 145 

ESPRBSS PAST LINS, 




C A.Ro ST \Ciia *L BO \T 

OFFICE. 

For Philadelpfno and Pittsburg, ntuatcd near 

Ihe Prpnt, Snrih Queen Street. Lancaster, 

Tuuu doors Sonlh of Chamhcrlin's 

Hotel 

THIS LINT, is of acknowledged speed Fe- 
commendations have been given by th« 
most compclent juclg:c8, in relation to its niany 
advantages 1 lie extreme neatness of 

THB BOa.TS, 




The comfort and adaptation of the 

STAGES 




are noi to he surpassed by an\ ihinpon the route. 
The Fare will He as low as liiii of any of the 
other lines. >ih1 the agents will be leady and 
wilJiVig to fOiirluce tothe comtbit of ?lie paasen* 
gcrs. scf that their haggagc is stnctlv taken care 
of and look »0 every iirr^ngernenj necessary to 
their accommodation The Porter, who i^ known 
til be ohhgi >g. will con^^cy batjgage 'o anv part 
of the city for those who 'lesire n The under" 
signed Airent will endeavor tr> add to >lir com* 
foi-t of tiiose wbp m^y patronuc tbf txpres* 

WM A HAMniUGHI\ 

Mhi '0. \f.n 



146 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to pay the expenses of the trip. The remote settlements 
were fortunate if they received mail once a month. 

Newspapers were not carried in the mails, but by private 
arrangement. The newspapers were small and ill-printed, 
and contained little that we would call news. The chief 
contents were bits of poetry, advertisements for runaway 
slaves and indented servants, arrivals of cargoes, bits of 
European news, and essays on politics, morals, and religion. 
TJie Boston News Letter, established in 1704, was the first 
permanent newspaper in America. At the opening of 
the Revolution there were thirty-seven newspapers printed 
in the colonies, with a combined weekly circulation of 
about five thousand copies. The first daily was not printed 
until 1784. 

Colonial Government 

We have made frequent references to the government 
of the colonies in our account of the settlements ; but 
the subject is so important as to require some further 
treatment. 

Charter, Royal, and Proprietary Colonies. — The colonies 
with respect to their government are usually placed in three 
groups: I. The charter colonies governed by the people 
by means of a charter, or written contract with the king. 
At the coming of the Revolution there were but three of 
these — Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 
2. The proprietary colonies, held by a proprietor who 
received his power from the king. There were also three 
of these — Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware. 3. The 
royal colonies, which were held directly by the crown. Of 
these there were seven — Virginia, the CaroHnas, New 
Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, and Georgia. 

It will be noticed that the royal form of government 



CHARTER, ROYAL, PROPRIETARY COLONIES 147 

predominated at the coming of the Revolution. Several 
of the colonies that were at first proprietary, as the Caro- 




A Colonial Child — Jane Bonner, Eight Years Old, 1700 

linas and Georgia, became royal colonies, and the same is 
true of Virginia, which was first a charter colony. Only 



148 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

two of the colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut, retained 
the same form of government from the time of their settle- 
ment to the Revolution. 

The chief difference in the various groups lay in the 
method of choosing the governor. In the royal colonies 
he was appointed by the crown ; in the proprietary colo- 
nies he was appointed by the proprietor, and in the charter 
colonies he was elected by the people — with the one ex- 
ception of Massachusetts, in which, after receiving her 
second charter in 1691, the governor was appointed by the 
crown. 

The Three Departments. — The governments in the vari- 
ous colonies were strikingly similar. In each there were 
three departments: i. The governor, 2. the council, and 
3. the assembly. 

The governor had a difficult position to fill. In each 
colony (except Rhode Island and Connecticut) he repre- 
sented a higher power, the king or the proprietor, and yet 
he owed a duty to the people. His powers were extensive. 
He could veto the acts of the legislature ; he had com- 
mand of the militia, and he appointed many officials, 
as judges, magistrates, and sheriffs. But in one respect 
he was always held in check : he could not tax the 
people. 

The council, usually about twelve men, was appointed 
by the same power that appointed the governor.^ The 
members were residents of the colony and usually men of 
wealth. The duties of the council were threefold. It was 
a board of advisers to the governor ; it constituted the 

1 Except in Massachusetts under the second chartet where the council was 
elected by the General Court. In Pennsylvania the council had less power 
than in the other colonies. The two-chambered legislature was not intro- 
duced into Georgia till 1752. 



THE COURTS 149 

upper house of the legislature, and it frequently formed 
the highest court in the colony. 

The assembly was the lower and larger branch of the 
legislature. Its members were elected by the people in all 
the colonies. It had most to do with making the laws ; 
but its acts could be vetoed by the governor, or if signed 
by him, they could be set aside by the king. The great 
power of the assembly lay in its control of suppHes, its sole 
power of taxing the people. Often when the governor 
disapproved its acts, it would withhold his salary until he 
yielded. Many were the conflicts between the governor 
and assembly, and the latter usually won through its power 
over the purse. 

The franchise, or right to vote, was restricted by 
a property test, or rehgious test, or both, in all the 
colonies. 

The Courts. — At the bottom stood the justice of the 
peace, who presided at petty civil trials only. He was 
usually appointed by the governor. Next came the county 
courts before which were tried civil cases involving small 
sums, and criminal cases not involving capital punishment. 
The highest court was usually composed of the governor 
and council, but in some cases an appeal could be made 
to the Privy Council in England. 

Local Government. — In New England the township, 
called the town, was the unit of local government. Once 
a year and sometimes oftener the voters of the town 
would all meet together to lay taxes, to make laws, and to 
choose officers called selectmen, and many other officers. 
The county was of far less importance in New England 
than the town. 

In the South the county was the important political divi- 
sion. The chief county officer was the sheriff appointed 



I50 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

by the governor. Counties in the South were divided into 
parishes, but the business of the parish at length came to 
be done by the county officers, known as the County Court. 
In South Carolina there were parishes, but neither counties 
nor townships ; in Maryland the township was at first called 
the hundred, and is still so called in Delaware. 

In New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania a mixed 
system was adopted, a blending of the town system of 
New England and of the county system of the South. In 
New York the chief township officer was the supervisor, 
who was also a county officer, being a member of the board 
of supervisors, which met once a year. In Pennsylvania 
the county was first organized, and the township came 
into existence only when the business of the county became 
burdensome and had to be divided. 

The Navigation Laws 

The thirteen colonies, as we have noticed, were in a great 
measure self-governing, but not wholly so. In several 
ways the liberty of the colonies was restricted. They all 
acknowledged the sovereignty of the British crown ; all but 
two had governors with veto power, appointed by a power 
above the people ; the Privy Council of England, in certain 
cases, became a court of last resort in deciding colonial 
affairs, and, most important of all. Parliament had power 
to make the trade laws, known as the navigation laws. 

The trade of the colonies was with one another, with the 
West Indies, and with Europe. The Navigation Acts were 
intended to regulate this trade. The first was passed in 
165 1 and the second a few years later. They forbade the 
carrying of any goods to or from the colonies except in 
English or colonial ships, and forbade the shipping of cer- 



THE MOLASSES ACT 151 

tain articles, as tobacco, sugar, cotton, and wool, to any 
country except England, and when shipped to England, 
heavy duties were required. These laws if enforced would 
have been disastrous to colonial trade, but in 1672 another 
burden was added : a law was passed laying duties on all 
trade from one colony to another. 

These laws, burdensome as they were, were followed by 
others which added to the burden. The corn laws enacted 
about 1666 in the interest of the British farmers, shut out 
from England grain raised in the colonies. This drove 
some of the northern colonies to manufacturing, and this 
again led Parliament to pass laws against manufacturing. 
New York made a great many fur hats, but in 1732 a law 
was passed forbidding the exporting of hats to England, to 
any foreign country, or from one colony to another. Iron 
forges and furnaces had been set up in many colonies, 
but in 1750 a law was enacted declaring that " nomill or 
other engine for rolling or slitting iron, nor any furnace 
for making steel, shall be erected in the colonies." 

The Molasses Act of 1733 was one of the harshest of 
British laws in suppression of colonial trade. New Eng- 
land enjoyed a large trade with the West Indies, receiving 
molasses and sugar for flour, lumber, and fish. By the 
Molasses Act prohibitive duties were put on West India 
sugar and molasses, and had it been strictly enforced the 
prosperity of New England would have been at an end. 

The general purpose of the navigation laws was, not 
wantonly to cripple the growth of the colonies, but to make 
them beneficial to the mother country. ^ A similar ground 
was taken by all the European countries that had colonies 
at this period. Manufactures, for example, were sup- 
pressed in order to create an American market for British 

i And also at first to prevent smuggling by the Dutch of New Netherland. 



152 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

manufactures. The Molasses Act was passed in the inter- 
est of the British sugar islands. 

In fairness to the English government it must be said 
that Parliament passed various laws purely in the interest 
of the colonies. It prohibited the raising of tobacco in 
England in order to aid the American tobacco raisers, and 
it paid bounties on American hemp, tar, and the like. 

Smuggling. — The Navigation Acts were too sweeping 
and too harsh to be enforced, and the colonists evaded them 
at every port. The laws against manufacturing were to a 
great extent enforced ; but not so with the laws against 
trade. They could scarcely be enforced at all. The whole 
people became lawbreakers, smugghng goods in and out of 
the country in vast quantities. ^ Public officials, including 
governors, were said to connive at the business, and when 
a smuggler was arrested, it was difficult to iind a jury that 
would convict him. 

The policy was on the whole unfortunate to British 
interests. It not only made the people lawbreakers, it 
also led them to hold Parliament in contempt as unable to 
enforce its own laws, and little by little it served to prepare 
them for a final break with the mother land. 

REFERENCES 

For a popular study of colonial life, habits, manners, dress, and fur- 
niture the volumes of Mrs. Alice Morse Earle have no equal. Among 
the best of her books are '' Customs and Fashions in Old New England " ; 
"Stage Coach and Tavern Days"; "Child Life in Colonial Days"; 
"Home Life in Colonial Days." S. G. Fisher's "Men, Women, and 
Manners of Colonial Times" is also recommended. Lodge's "Short 
History" is especially strong in its dealing with colonial life and habits. 
For government of the colonies Fiske's "Civil Government" and 
Andrew's "Manual of the Constitution" are recommended. 

1 The people were not without examples in smuggling. It was said that 
forty thousand men in England were at that time engaged in smuggling. 



CHAPTER IX 
THE REVOLUTION 

The bond between Great Britain and her American 
colonies was a mild one and how long it would have re- 
mained unbroken, but for certain unexpected events, is a 
matter of conjecture. The colonies, all except Georgia, 
had been planted and had grown to a state of prosperity 
without aid from the British government, as wild grain 
outside the cultivated fields. When this fact is considered, 
it seems remarkable that the filial affection of the colonists 
for the mother country continued so long and so faithfully. 
It is true that the navigation laws were irritable and that 
there were frequent quarrels with the royal governors ; but 
these were only ripples on a smooth sea. The people con- 
tinued to hew away the forests, to delve the soil, and to 
build cities, churches, and schools, and though many thou- 
sands of them had been born in America and had never 
seen England, their proudest boast was that they were 
Englishmen. 

It is true that a separation at some time was sure to 
come. The two peoples had unconsciously grown apart 
for many years. The Americans had learned to govern 
themselves ; they had become strong in battling with the 
French, with the Indians, and with the wolves, and no 
longer now did they feel the need of protection from the 
French, since Canada had been ceded to England. 

153 



154 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Causes of the War 

At the close of the French and Indian War the British 
debt had grown to large proportions and there was a feel- 
ing among British statesmen that the colonies should in 
some regular way be made to share the burdens of the 
empire. 

A threefold policy was decided on. First, the Naviga- 
tion Acts must be enforced. The high duties of the Molas- 
ses Act were lowered, after which it was determined to 
enforce them. Second, a standing army must be main- 
tained in America, and third, the colonies must be taxed. 

James Otis. — In order to enforce the navigation laws 
officers were armed with "writs of assistance," or search 
warrants by which they were authorized to enter stores, 
warehouses, or private dwellings in search of smuggled 
goods. This practice, which had gone on for a long time, 
was very distasteful to the people. At length, in 1761, a 
brilliant young Boston lawyer, James Otis', led in a cru- 
sade against the practice. In a fiery speech he declared 
that the writs were illegal, and that Parliament had no 
right to trample thus on the liberties of the people. The 
speech of Otis was the first note of resistance heard in the 
colonies. The people were roused and with few excep- 
tions they agreed with the Boston lawyer. John Adams, 
then a young man, heard the speech of Otis, and many 
years later he wrote that " Otis was a flame of fire," that 
his oration ** breathed into this nation the breath of life," 
that " then and there independence was born." 

Patrick Henry. — Scarcely had the sound of Otis's voice 
subsided when another arose, this one from a young lawyer 
in Virginia, Patrick Henry. The king had set aside a law 
made by the legislature of Virginia ; the case came before 



THE STAMP ACT 



155 




a jury in the *' Parson's Cause," and Henry, in an outburst 
of eloquence, declared that the king had no right to inter- 
fere in the private affairs of the colony. 

This case had no connection with the writs of assistance, 
but the principle involved was the same as in the case of 
Otis — a resistance to British interference with the liber- 
ties of the colonists. 

The Stamp Act. — In order to raise money to keep a stand- 
ing army in America the EngHsh Parliament passed an act in 
March, 1765, known as the 
Stamp Act. There were 
fifty- four kinds of stamps 
in all, differing greatly in 
value. It was required 
that they be purchased by 
the Americans and used 
on newspapers, deeds, and 
many kinds of bills. 

The Americans were greatly opposed to paying a tax in 
this way. They declared that they could protect them- 
selves from the Indians and did not need an army among 
them. They decided that they would not purchase or 
use the stamps at all. Again Massachusetts and Vir- 
ginia joined hands. The Virginia legislature, led by 
Patrick Henry, passed a series of resolutions against the 
Stamp Act, and they were published broadcast over the 
land. The Massachusetts legislature, led by Otis, called 
for a congress of all the colonies to protest against the 
Stamp Act. 

The Stamp Act Congress met in New York City in 
October, 1765. Members were there from nine of the 
thirteen colonies. The leading men were James Otis and 
Christopher Gadsden, of South Carohna. This congress 



Stamp Act Stamps 



156 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

sat for three weeks and framed a Declaration of Rights and 
a petition to the king and ParHament. 

The ParHament refused to recede and the stamps were 
sent. The American people became furious. Great mass 
meetings were held and riots occurred. Boxes of stamps 
were seized and destroyed and the men appointed to dis- 
tribute them were forced to resign and often burned in 
effigy. In New York Lieutenant Governor Golden at- 
tempted to enforce the act and the people threatened to 
hang him to a lamp post. Merchants and business men 
banded together and agreed not to import goods from 
England till the odious law was repealed. A patriotic 
society, known as the '* Sons of Liberty," was formed and 
it determined to resist the use of the stamps. *' No taxa- 
tion without representation " was the cry on all sides. 

Repeal of the Stamp Act. — The British Parliament did 
not perhaps intend to offend the colonists with the stamps ; 
it meant to raise money in the easiest way, as it was be- 
lieved. But when the fierce opposition arose in America, 
a motion to repeal the act was brought up. William Pitt, 
whom we have met in connection with the French and 
Indian War, made a powerful plea for repeal, declaring that 
he was glad America had resisted. The act was repealed 
in 1766 and with the repeal was passed the Declaratory- 
Act, a statement that Parliament had the right to tax the 
colonies " in all cases whatsoever." 

The colonists were so pleased with the repeal that they 
were ready to forget all the past trouble ; but the very 
next year, 1767, Parliament was foolish enough to irritate 
them again. It laid a tax on tea, glass, and a few other 
things to show that it could tax America if it chose. 
Again the colonists were aflame with anger — for the third 
time within a few years. 



SAMUEL ADAMS AND GEORGE WASHINGTON 



57 



Samuel Adams and George Washington. — A new leader 
then arose in Massachusetts, Samuel Adams ; and another 
in Virginia, George Washington, who led the planters of 
his colony to resistance. 
Various legislatures con- 
demned the new form of 
taxation and declared that 
the people had the sole 
right to tax themselves. 
It was determined on all 
sides that neither tea nor 
other taxed articles should 
be imported until the du- 
ties were removed. 

The Boston Massacre ; 
The Gaspee. — British 
troops were sent to Boston 
to enforce the new tax law 
and one day they fired on 
some of the people who 
jeered them in the streets, 

killing several. The people became so furious at this that 
the soldiers had to be removed from the town. In North 
Carolina the royal governor fired on the people who had 
organized as "■ regulators." 

The Gaspee was a British vessel with troops who com- 
initted many outrages along the coast of Rhode Island, 
until the residents became so angered that they burned the 
vessel. These events showed that the breach between 
England and America was widening, and the signs of the 
times pointed to still more serious differences. 

The Boston Tea Party. — Parliament again decided to 
give way. It repealed the duties on all the goods, except 




Samuel Adams 



158 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




tea.^ The duty on tea was retained because the young 
king, George III, wished to show the colonists that he 
could tax them if he chose. But the Americans refused 
to buy the tea; they decided to refrain from drinking tea 
till the tax was removed. They determined also that they 
would not even permit the tea to be landed. 

In the autumn of 1773 ships loaded with tea reached the 
harbors at Charleston, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. 
At Philadelphia the ships were not permitted to land ; at 
Charleston the tea was landed, only to rot in storage. At 
Boston three tea ships lay in the har- 
bor, but the people declared that it 
should not be landed. Great meet- 
ings were held at Fanueil Hall, 
known as the " Cradle of Liberty " 
which declared that the tea must 
not be landed. One night in De- 
cember, 1773, about fifty men dis- 
guised as Indians, after giving a 
warwhoop, ran silently to the har- 
bor, boarded the ships, broke open 
the tea chests, and poured the con- 
tents into the sea. 
Four Intolerable Acts. — When King 
George heard of the work of the Boston Tea Party, he was 
very angry, and in quick succession he had his Parliament 
pass four harsh measures : i. The Boston Port Bill, which 
closed the port of Boston and moved the capital of the 
colony to Salem ; 2. An act called the Regulating Act, 
annulling the charter of Massachusetts ; 3. An act pro- 
viding that persons accused of certain offenses be sent to 

1 The duties collected under this method had amounted to ;!^i6,ooo, and 
it cost the British government ;i^ 200,000 to collect it. 




THE APPEAL OF MASSACHUSETTS 159 

England for trial ; 4. An act making it legal to quarter 
troops in any town in Massachusetts. 

The Appeal of Massachusetts. — The colony of Massa- 
chusetts in her distress now made an appeal to the other 
colonists for help. Committees of Correspondence had 
been formed in nearly all the colonies and it was through 
them that the appeal was made. The response from Maine 
to Georgia was most gratifying. George Washington 
offered to arm a thousand men at his own expense and 
march in defense of Boston. Thomas Jefferson declared 
that ParHament had no right to any authority in the 
colonies. Nearly all the colonies joined in an agreement 
of non-intercourse with England. As the day for the 
Boston Port Bill to go into effect approached, cattle, grain, 
and produce from the other colonies began to pour into 
Boston. Had King George been able to glance over 
America on that day he would have seen that one of two 
courses lay open to him — to recede from his position or 
to make war upon a continent. 

The Continental Congress ; Bunker Hill 

The above-mentioned events showed clearly that there 
was a widespread feeling in the colonies against English 
oppression and a determination to resist it ; but there was 
no union and without union the colonists could scarcely 
hope to succeed, if England persisted. The much-desired 
union was brought about by the formation of the First 
Coutinental Congress, the result of a spontaneous move- 
ment throughout the country. A yoing Bostonian named 
Paul Revere started on a fleet horse to New York and 
Philadelphia, to rouse the people ; but he had little to do. 
The people were already aroused. In all the colonies 



l6o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

except Georgia delegates were sent to the Congress. It 
met in Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, in September, 1774, 
was in session seven weeks, and, adjourning, appointed 
the loth of the following May for the meeting of a second 
Congress in case it was needed. Among the leading 
members of the First Continental Congress were George 
Washington and Patrick Henry of Virginia, John Dickin- 
son of Pennsylvania, John and Samuel Adams of Massa- 
chusetts, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. 

What the Congress Did. — This Congress did not attempt 
to make laws. The members had no thought of indepen- 
dence from England. They wished only to secure freedom 
from oppressive laws. They were not violent nor did they 
talk about arms and warfare. They declared their rights 
and prepared three addresses, one to the king, another to 
the people of England, and a third to the people of Canada. 
They also formed an association to carry out the policy of 
non-intercourse with England, and for this purpose com- 
mittees were to be formed in every county and township in 
the country. 

When their addresses reached England, William Pitt, who 
was now the Earl of Chatham, declared that for firmness, 
wisdom, and solidity of reasoning no nation or body of 
men could stand in preference to the Congress at Phila- 
delphia. 

In Massachusetts there was great excitement. In the 
absence of Samuel Adams the leaders were John Han- 
cock, the richest merchant in New England, and Joseph 
Warren, a noted Boston physician. The people forced the 
king's officers to resign, refused to serve as jurymen, and on 
every village green they met for military drill. 

Paul Revere'sRide ; Lexington. — The short-sighted king 
did not heed the humble petition of the Congress. On the 



PAUL; REVERE'S RIDE; LEXINGTON 



6l 



other hand he sent General Gage with an army to awe 
the people and made him governor of the colony. But the 
people refused to be awed ; they collected a large store of 
guns and ammunition at Concord, some miles from Boston. 
General Gage then sent several hundred men to destroy 
the stores. 

When it was rumored that the soldiers would be sent 
on a certain night, Paul Revere stood by his steed waiting 
for a lantern signal 
in a church tower. 
When he saw it, he 
started on his mid- 
night ride to apprise 
the people. When 
he reached the little 
town of Lexington, 
some one said that 
he was making too 
much noise and would 
awaken the people. 
" Noise," cried Re- 
vere," you'll soon have 
noise enough ; the 
regulars are coming." 

On came the sol- 
diers and when they 
reached Lexington, a 
fight occurred in which several were killed. The troops 
then moved on to Concord. But the farmers, having heard 
of their coming, seized their muskets and swarmed into 
Concord by hundreds. ^ A fierce fight occurred. The 
British were beaten and started to run ; but the farmers 

1 The pupils should here be required to read Emerson's Centennial Ode. 

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The Minuteman at Concord 



l62 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

kept after them, and from behind trees, fences, thickets, 
and hillocks they poured an incessant fire into the retreat- 
ing enemy. No doubt the whole British force would have 
been killed or captured had not General Gage sent re- 
enforcements, who met the fleeing army at Lexington. 

Result of the Battle. — - This first armed conflict roused 
the people as nothing had done before. The patriots did 
not return to their homes ; they gathered around Boston, 
and thousands of others soon joined them. Israel Putnam 
of Connecticut left his plow in the furrow and led a band 
of farmers to Boston ; Benedict Arnold brought a com- 
pany from New Haven ; John Stark came with twelve 
hundred from New Hampshire, ind Nathanael Greene 
brought a thousand men from Rhode Island. Within a 
few days after this Concord fight Boston was beset with 
an army of sixteen thousand patriots. 

The other colonies were also roused. The royal gov- 
ernors were driven from their offices. Three weeks after 
the fight at Lexington and Concord, two powerful forts in 
northern New York, Ticonderoga and Crown Point, were 
seized by the patriots led by Ethan Allen and Seth Warner. 

Everything now pointed to a long and bloody war. 
The people were not yet thinking much about indepen- 
dence. Reconciliation was still possible, but only on the 
condition that the proud English monarch would yield. 

Second Continental Congress. — The first Congress had 
decided that a second meet in May, 1775, if there was 
need, and there was. The Second Continental Congress 
met at the time appointed in the State House, afterward 
Independence Hall, Philadelphia. Many of the old mem- 
bers were present. A few of the new ones were Benjamin 
Franklin, John Hancock, who was made president, and 
Thomas Jefferson. 



SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 



163 



Doings of the Second Congress. — One of the most im- 
portant acts of this Congress was to adopt the army around 
Boston and appoint a commander in chief. George Wash- 
ington of Virginia was chosen as the commander. When 
John Adams was making the nominating speech, describ- 
ing the kind of man he would name, Washington sat and 
listened intently. When he heard his own name men- 




OLD SlAlK HoUbE, PHILADKLI'HIA 



tioned, he rose quickly and left the room. The choice was 
made by ballot and every one voted for Washington. 

This Congress laid no claim to a desire for indepen- 
dence. It prepared another petition to the king and sent 
it by special messenger ; it also sent addresses to the peo- 
ple of England, to Ireland, and to C:mada. It authorized 
various colonies to set up governments instead of the royal 
governments that had been overthrown, and it did many 
other necessary things. 



l64 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




Bunker Hill. — In spite of the disaster at Lexington 
and Concord British hopes rose high at Boston in the 

spring of 1775. Gen- 
erals Howe, Clin- 
ton, and Burgoyne 
arrived in May with 
another army. Gage 
had possession of 
Boston, but there 
were hills about the 
city from which, if 
occupied by the 
Americans, shells 
might be thrown in- 
to the British camp 
and shipping. Gage, therefore, determined to occupy some 
of these hills, and the Americans, hearing of this, deter- 
mined to head off the enemy and occupy them first. 

Accordingly General Artemas Ward, the American 
commander, sent Colonel William Prescott with twelve 
hundred men to occupy Bunker Hill. They passed 
Bunker Hill and reached Breed's Hill, where they threw 
up an embankment. Next morning three thousand of the 
British regulars, led by Howe, surged up the hill and 
opened the battle. Twice they were driven back, leaving 
many of their numbers dead and dying strewn along the 
hillside. A third attack was successful, as the Americans 
had run short of powder. The British captured the hill, 
but only with the loss of more than a thousand men, while 
the American loss was less than four hundred and fifty. 
Saddest of all, the noble patriot Joseph Warren was among 
the American slain. 

Washington Takes Charge of the Army. — Two weeks 



WASHINGTON TAKES CHARGE OF THE ARMY 165 

after the battle of Bunker Hill, Washington reached 
Cambridge, and under a great elm tree, that is still stand- 
ing, assumed command. He was warmly greeted by the 
officers and men. Among the officers were the generals : 
Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island, the ablest commander 
in the war, except Washington ; John Sullivan and John 
Stark of New Hampshire; Henry Knox, who years after- 
ward became a member of Washington's first Cabinet, and 




Thk liA'i ilk of Bunker Hill 

Daniel Morgan, the leader of five hundred Virginia sharp- 
shooters. The British seemed to have learned a lesson at 
Concord and Bunker Hill, and many months passed with- 
out an attack being made. Washington spent the time 
drilling and reorganizing his army. 

An American expedition was sent to Canada in the 
autumn of 1775, but it was not successful and the leader, 
General Richard Montgomery, was killed. 



l66 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




At the approach of spring, 1776, Washington deter- 
mined to strike a blow. One night early in March he 

sent a part of his army 
to occupy Dorchester 
Heights, overlooking 
Boston Harbor. In the 
morning General Howe, 
who had succeeded Gage 
as commander of the 
British army, was aston- 
ished to find that the 
Americans were in posi- 
tion to destroy every 
ship in the harbor. This 
was on March 5, pre- 
cisely six years after the 
Boston Massacre. Howe 
now determined to leave 
Boston. With all his ships he sailed away to Halifax, 
and never since then has a foreign foe trod the soil of 
Massachusetts. 

Declaration of Independence 

We left Congress waiting to hear the answer to their 
petition to the king. It reached London in August, 1775. 
The answer came in October, and it was a stunning one. 
King George had refused to receive the petition or to see 
the messenger that bore it. But that was not all. The 
king had issued a proclamation declaring the colonists 
rebels and no longer under his protection and he hired a 
large number of Hessian soldiers to fight the Americans. 

Move toward Independence. — The news of these things 
reached America in October and the people were deeply 



The Washington Elm, Cambridge 



NORTH CAROLINA 



67 



Stirred. Thousands who had been lukewarm before now 
came out openly for the patriot cause. The war had been 
in progress nearly a year 
and few of the people 
had thought of breaking 
away from England. 
But now they began to 
talk openly of indepen- 
dence. The idea of in- 
dependence grew stead- 
ily during the winter. 

North Carolina was 
the first colony to move 
through its legislature 
for independence. This 
was in April, 1776. 
Soon after this the leg- 
islature of Virginia in- 
structed its delegates in 
Congress to propose a 

declaration, and one of them, Richard Henry Lee, did so 
on June 7. Lee's resolution was, " That these United 
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indepen- 
dent states, and that they are absolved from all allegiance 
to the British Crown." 

The Fourth of July. — Lee's resolution was laid on the 
table for three weeks that Congress might hear from the 
various colonies. Meantime Thomas Jefferson was chosen 
the head of a committee to put the declaration into fitting 
form ; that is, to write the Declaration of Independence. 
By the ist of July all the colonies, except New York, had 
given their voice in favor of independence. The resolution 
to declare a dissolution between the two countries was 




INDLIL 



Hall, Philadelphia 



l68 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



passed 
taken up 



on the 2d. Jefferson's Declaration was then 
and was passed on the evening of the 4th. 
Thus the Fourth of July 
became the national birth- 
day and has since been 
celebrated as our national 
holiday. 

News of the Declaration. 
— The people were deliri- 
ous with joy at their new 
decision. They knew that 
years of bloody war must 
follow, that it meant va- 
cant chairs, widowed 
mothers, and fatherless 
children. But they took 
no step backward ; they 
had now a goal; they knew 
what they were fighting 
for. The old Liberty Bell, 
as it came to be called, 
rang out the glad news to the city. Postriders were sent 
in all directions to carry the tidings. In New York a 
leaden statue of George III was melted into bullets. The 
Declaration was read from pulpits and platforms and to 
the soldiers in the army. It was welcomed everywhere 
with shouts and processions, with bonfires and illumina- 
tions, with the firing of guns and the ringing of bells. For 
years the people had groped in the dark, unable to divine 
the next move on the great chessboard. Now there was 
a prize placed before them, and to attain it they were 
ready to stake their " lives, their fortunes, and their sacred 
honor." 




The Liberty Bell 



THE TORIES 169 

Military Movements of 1776 

The Tories. — The Declaration of Independence did not 
bring independence ; it defined the object of the war and 
roused the people to greater effort. Not all the people, 
however, were in favor of breaking away from England. 
Many of them, perhaps one third of the colonists, remained 
true to the king and aided the English when they could. 
These were called Tories, or loyalists, and sometimes royal- 



"m^^^i 




oC4/*>vw 




Fac Simile of a portion of the Declaration of Independence 

ists. There were many Tories in the South and in New 
York. In other parts they were less numerous. 

War in the South. — On the first day of the year 1776 
Norfolk, Virginia, was burned by the royal governor from 
his ships in the harbor, after he had been driven off the 
soil by the patriots. In February a fierce battle occurred 
at Moore's Creek, North Carolina, between patriots and 
loyalists, and the patriots were successful. 

In January Sir Henry Clinton was sent to southern 
waters with a fleet, and later it was joined by another fleet 
commanded by Sir Peter Parker. The double fleet then 



I/O SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

sailed to Charleston and made an attack. In front of the 
city on Sullivan's Island was a rude fort made of logs and 
sand bags, and the brave Americans behind them were com- 
manded by a true southern hero, Colonel William Moultrie. 
The British bombarded this for many hours, but failing 
to capture it, they sailed away for New York, and the 
South was free from invasion for three years. One of the 
bravest deeds of the war is related of Sergeant WilHam 
Jasper at Sullivan's Island. The flagstaff was broken by 
a cannon ball, and the flag fell outside the fort. Jasper 




then leaped down the bank in the midst of the enemy's 
fire and gathered up the fallen banner. The story is still 
related at the American fireside as an example of the hero- 
ism of the men of the Revolution. 

New York and Long Island. — After the British sailed away 
from Boston to Halifax Washington believed that when they 
returned they would aim to strike New York, and he removed 
his army thither. His surmise proved correct. Howe re- 
turned from HaHfax and was joined by Clinton's fleet and an- 
other large English fleet. The intention of the British was 



NEW YORK AND LONG ISLAND 



to cut off New England from the South by occupying New 
York and conquering the Hudson Valley. But before pro- 
ceeding further the British offered the olive branch : the 
king offered to pardon all who would lay down their arms 
and assist in restoring order. But the Americans would 
accept nothing short of independence. Washington, oc- 
cupying Manhattan Island, sent several thousand men to 
hold Brooklyn Heights. Howe attacked the Americans and 
a desperate fight, known as the battle of Long Island, 




occurred. The British were successful and captured 
eleven hundred Americans, including their commander, 
General Sullivan. Howe might have captured the entire 
American army by assault, but he settled down to a 
siege. Next morning (August 30) his prey had escaped. 
Washington, with remarkable skill, had taken his army 
across East River in a dense fog aud landed it safely on 
Manhattan. 

Howe crossed to New York, and Washington, whose army 
was much smaller than Howe's, fell back to the Harlem 



172 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

River.^ Here a light battle took place, and in October a 
greater one at White Plains, the British loss being much 
greater than the American. Howe then retired down the 
river and Washington took a position at North Castle, near 
White Plains. 

Retreat across New Jersey. — A most serious disaster 
befell the Americans in November. Fort Washington, on 
the upper end of Manhattan, and occupied by three thou- 
sand troops, was stormed by the British army and captured. 
So bravely did the Americans defend the fort that Howe 
lost five hundred men ; but the odds were too great, and 
the entire American force, with all their stores, surrendered 
to the enemy. Soon after this Fort L.ee, on the west side 
of the Hudson, was also captured ; but the garrison 
escaped. 

Washington was deeply disheartened, and many believed 
that the patriot cause was lost. He had crossed the Hud- 
son with half his army, about six thousand men, leaving 
the other half at North Castle, under General Charles Lee. 
He then urged Lee to join him with the rest of the army, 
but Lee was at heart a traitor to the patriot cause, and he 
refused to move. Lord Cornwallis, with a British army, 
started in pursuit of Washington, who retreated across the 
Jersey plains to the banks of the Delaware.^ Lee at last 
crossed the Hudson when too late to do any good. 

Washington had crossed the Delaware and saved his 
army from capture. Great was the excitement in Phila- 

1 While Washington's army was retiring before Howe on Manhattan, a large 
portion of it was no doubt saved from capture by the clever strategy of a 
woman. Mrs. Murray, a wealthy lady of New York, asked General Howe to 
take luncheon at her home, her object being to delay him. Thinking her a 
loyalist, Howe did so, and spent several hours. Meantime, four thousand 
patriot soldiers under Putnam, who had been in imminent danger of capture, 
made their escape. 



THE VICTORY AT TRENTON 



73 



delphia when it was known that the patriot army was 
fleeing toward the city. 

The Victory at Trenton. — CornwalHs felt so sure that 
the British had won and the war was over that he prepared 
to return to England. But he soon changed his mind. 
Washington was preparing for a bold stroke. Twelve hun- 




dred Hessian soldiers were at Trenton under Colonel Rail, 
and Washington decided to cross the river and attack 
them. 

On a dark night (Christmas night, 1776) he crossed the 
Delaware, covered with blocks of floating ice, and marched 
silently toward the city. The attack was made at day- 
break. The Hessians were completely surprised, and in 
a short time the whole force was captured. The people 



174 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

rejoiced and again took heart when they heard the joyful 
news. 

Cornwallis gave up his trip to England and hastened to 
Trenton with another army. He now determined to crowd 
Washington to the bank of the Delaware and capture his 
whole army. " At last we have run down the old fox and 
will bag him in the morning," said the British commander. 

But Washington was too wily to be caught in such a 
trap. With wonderful skill he marched his army silently 
around the enemy's flank, and when Cornwallis awoke in 
the morning, the Americans were miles away, marching 
toward Princeton. Near Princeton they met a British 
force, which they soon put to flight, after which they took 
up winter quarters at Morristown. 

In a few weeks Washington had done a wonderful work. 
He had won two victories, taken many prisoners, increased 
his own army, and, above all, had infused a new and living 
hope in the hearts of the patriots from Maine to Georgia 
and from the mountains to the sea. 



SUMMARY 

For more than one hundred and fifty years the bond of good will 
between England and the colonies was unbroken, though the two 
peoples were constantly growing apart. 

Causes of Separation. — An attempt by England to enforce the 
navigation laws, to keep a standing army in America, and to tax the 
colonies caused the war. These things brought about the resistance 
to the Writs of Assistance and to the Stamp Act. The people were 
first led to oppose the oppressive acts by James Otis and Patrick 
Henry, followed by Samuel Adams. The Stamp Act Congress met in 
New York in 1765. 

Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, but laid a duty on tea, etc. The 
Americans destroyed the tea in Boston Harbor, whereupon Parliament 
passed some harsh measures, one of which, the Boston Port Bill, closed 



THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 175 

the port of Boston, and another annulled the charter of Massachusetts. 
The other colonies hastened to the rescue of Massachusetts. 

The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, September, 
1774. Its most important work was the sending of a petition to the 
king and the forming of an association to carry out a policy of non- 
intercourse with England until colonial rights were restored. 

The Second Congress met in May, 1775. It adopted the army 
gathered at Boston, made Washington its commander, again petitioned 
the king, and authorized the colonies to set up governments. 

The First Armed Conflicts. — The Americans were successful at Lex- 
ington and Concord, April 19, 1775. The battle of Bunker Hill occurred 
on June 17, after which Washington took charge of the army, and some 
months later forced Howe to evacuate Boston. 

In the South the patriots were successsful at Moore's Creek and 
drove the British from Charleston. Howe reached New York in 
August, 1776, defeated the patriots on Long Island, occupied New 
York, and captured Forts Washington and Lee. 

Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. 
Washington retreated across New Jersey, but, recrossing the Delaware, 
captured the Hessian army at Trenton, eluded Cornwallis, won the 
battle of Princeton, and took up winter quarters at Morristown. 

REFERENCES 

The general histories of the United States that have been men- 
tioned ; Elson, '' Side Lights on American History," Series I ; Fiske, 
" The American Revolution " ; Frothingham, '' Rise of the Republic " ; 
Lodge, " The Story of the Revolution " ; Trevelyan, ^' The American 
Revolution '' ; Hosmer, ^' Samuel Adams "" ; Hall, " Ethan Allen '' ; 
Autobiography of Franklin. 

NOTES 

Paul Revere. — One of Ihe most heroic minor figures of the early years of the 
Revolutionary War was Paul Revere, and his name has received a permanent historic 
setting in the poem of Longfellow. He was of Huguenot descent ; he served in the 
French War as lieutenant of artillery. By profession he was a goldsmith and copper- 
plate engraver, and he engraved the plates for the ' Continental money." In 1775 
he was sent to Philadelphia to learn to make powder, and on his return he set up 
a powder mill. He also became a manufacturer of church bells and cannon. 
Revere was forty years old at the time of his famous midnight ride. He was cap- 
tured by the British while on that ride, between Lexington and Concord, but was 



176 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

soon set free. He lived nearly forty years after the Revolution, dying in 1818, at 
the age of eighty-three. 

Burke on the Tea Tax. — The principle for which the colonies contended was 
not misunderstood in England. In reply to the statement that the tax on tea was 
trifling, Edmund Burke (April 19, 1768) replied : " Could anything be a subject of 
more just claim to America than to see you go out of the plain high road of finance 
. . . merely for the sake of insulting your colonies ? No man ever doubted that 
the commodity of tea could bear an imposition of threepence,. But no commodity 
will bear threepence, or will bear a penny, when the general feelings of men are 
irritated, and two millions of people are resolved not to pay. The feelings of the 
colonists are the same as those of Mr. Hampden when called on for the payment 
of twenty shillings. Would twenty shillings have ruined Mr. Hampden's fortune ? 
No! but the payment of half twenty shillings, on the principle it was demanded, 
would have made him a slave." 

Samuel Adams and the Election of the First Congress. —The Massachusetts 
assembly was very anxious to choose delegates to the Congress to meet in Septem- 
ber at Philadephia ; but it was known that at the first hint at such business the 
governor would dissolve the assembly. On June 17, 1774 (made famous a year 
later at Bunker Hill) the favorable moment came. The door was locked and dele- 
gates were nominated. Some of the members were frightened and sought to go 
out, but Adams pocketed the key. At length one of the loyalist members pretended 
to be very ill and was allowed to go. He ran to the governor and told the news. 
Governor Gage instantly sent his secretary with a writ dissolving the assembly, but 
the secretary found the door locked. He then read the writ in a loud voice from 
the steps outside. Meantime the assembly had elected four delegates — the two 
Adamses, Robert Treat Paine, and Thomas Cushing — by a vote of 117 to 12. — See 
Fiske, Vol. I, pp. 104-105. 

Nathan Hale. — After the Continental army had reached Harlem Heights above 
New York, Washington, desiring to be made acquainted with the force and prob- 
able purpose of the enemy, chose Nathan Hale, a brilliant young captain aged 
twenty-one, a graduate of Yale, and before the war, a Connecticut school teacher, 
for the dangerous task. Hale crossed the sound at Fairfield in September, 1776, 
disguised as a school teacher. He reached New York, made a careful study of the 
enemy's fortifications, drew plans, and was waiting for the ferry to return by way of 
Brooklyn when he was betrayed by a Tory kinsman who recognized him. His 
arrest followed, and Howe turned him over to the inhuman provost marshal, Cun- 
ningham, who hanged him the next day without a trial, and even refused him the 
services of a clergyman or the use of a Bible. Hale's dying utterance is well known : 
" I regret that I have but one life to give for my country." 



CHAPTER X 

THE REVOLUTION (Continued) 

A YEAR had passed since the British had determined to 
conquer the Hudson Valley and separate the colonies; 
but nothing had yet been done toward this end except the 
capture of Manhattan Island. The British now deter- 
mined on a desperate and final 

Struggle for the Hudson Valley 

It was decided that an army under General Burgoyne 
should sweep down from Canada, that a small army com- 
manded by Colonel St. Leger should ascend the St. Law- 
rence to Lake Ontario, land at Oswego, and conquer the 
Mohawk Valley, and that Howe should lead his army up 
the Hudson to join Burgoyne and St. Leger at Albany. 
There were many loyalists in northern New York, and it 
was hoped that they would rise in the king's cause. The 
campaign was well planned, and if properly carried out, it 
is doubtful if the Americans could have frustrated it. But 
the scheme failed through a careless blunder ^ in conse- 
quence of which General Howe did not receive instructions 
to move up the Hudson, and he sailed for the Chesapeake 
instead. 

Oriskany and Bennington. — General Burgoyne, with a 
fine army of eight thousand men, sailed up Lake Cham- 

1 For an account of this curious blunder see Elson's History, p. 269. 

N 177 



78 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



plain, and in a short time he had captured Fort Ticonder- 
oga, from which the British flag had been dragged by 
Ethan Allen two years before. The British were elated 

over this, but in 
- "".^ . S.'^''~-^ fact the Ameri- 

cans had little 
need of the fort, 
and it was a 
source of weak- 
ness to Bur- 
goyne, as it re- 
quired a large 
detachment of 
his army to hold 
it. The cap- 
ture, further- 
more, caused the 
people of New 
York and New 
England to rise 
in defense of 
their country. 
General Philip 
Schuyler was the 
American commander in the North, and recruits poured 
into his camp by thousands. 

Meantime St. Leger had landed ; but he was met at 
Oriskany by a small American army under General Nich- 
olas Herkimer, an aged German resident of that country. 
The battle was one of the most terrific of the war. Her- 
kimer received a mortal wound, but his army won, and two 
weeks later St. Leger had fled back to Canada. 

Bennington was a village in northern Vermont where the 




General Burgoyne 




Scene of War in the Northern and Middle States 



SARATOGA; THE SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE 179 



Americans had collected large stores 
was beginning to suffer from hunger, 
and Burgoyne sent about eight hun- 
dred men to capture the stores at 
Bennington. But John Stark was 
in the neighborhood. He soon had 
a strong force to oppose the Eng- 
Hsh. " They are ours to-night, or 
Molly Stark is a widow," said the 
dauntless Stark. The battle of 
Bennington continued for some 
hours when nearly the whole British 
force was captured. 

Saratoga ; the Surrender of Bur- 
goyne. — The news from Oriskany 
and Bennington was most disheart- 
ening to Burgoyne, and he longed 
for Howe, but Howe was far away 
on the banks of the Brandywine. 
Burgoyne's march was impeded by 
Schuyler, who felled trees and 
rolled heavy bowlders in his path. 
Schuyler was at length succeeded 
by General Horatio Gates, an un- 
warranted occurrence, for Schuyler 
was an abler soldier and truer patriot 
than Gates. 

Burgoyne pressed on and soon 
found himself in a trap, for the 
Americans were fast surrounding 
him. There was no escape but to 
fight his way to liberty. This he 
attempted with great bravery. On 



The British army 




TICONDEROGA 



imingto 



l8o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



September 19 the first battle of Saratoga occurred, with 
no great advantage to either side. Eighteen days later 
a second battle took place on the same ground. Bur- 

goyne was play- 
ing a losing game. 
None of his losses 
could be replaced, 
while the Ameri- 
can army was in- 
creasing every 
hour. When the 
brave British gen- 
eral found that he 
could hold out no 
longer, he offered 
to surrender his 
army. The sur- 
render was ac- 
complished on 
October 17, 1777, 
when 5799 men 
laid down their 
J°"^ ^'^^^^ arms and became 

prisoners of war. The entire British loss in the campaign 
exceeded ten thousand men. 

The American victory was one of great importance. 
This event has been considered the turning point in the 
war. From this time it was generally believed on both 
sides of the Atlantic that in the end American indepen- 
dence would be achieved. 1 

1 One effect of the surrender was that England offered to yield every 
point at issue, except independence. But it was too late. The offer was 
rejected. 




1 82 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Movements of Washington 

After Washington had won his brilliant success at 
Trenton and Princeton, he settled at Morristown, as we 
have seen. Here he remained till the spring of 1777. 
When Burgoyne came out of Canada into New York, 
Washington did not go north to meet him (though he 




VArrX-EY FORGE, PHIX, ADELPHIA , 

AND 

E!R A ND Y>VINE . 



Bormgy i Ct>.,N.T. 



sent as many troops as he could spare ),_as it was necessary 
to remain in New Jersey to watch Howe. Had Washing- 
ton left New Jersey unprotected Howe would have dashed 
across the state to Philadelphia. 

Howe attempted, late in the spring, to cross New Jersey, 
but Washington planted his army in the way. Though 
his army was inferior to Howe's, he harassed the British 
on all sides, and at length drove them back to New York. 



BRANDYWINE AND GERMANTOWN 



83 



Brandy wine and Germantown. — Howe then embarked 
on the sea, and sailed to the Chesapeake Bay, Landing 
near Elkton, Maryland, late in August. Washington, 
learning of this move, marched his army southward and 
met Howe on „ ^ 

a little stream 
called the Bran- 
dy wine, in south- 
ern Pennsylva- 
nia. Here, at 
a place called 
Chadd's Ford, 
was fought the 
battle of Brandy- 
wine, one of the 
hardest battles 
of the war. The 
British were 
victorious, and 
Howe moved on 
toward Philadel- 
phia. Washing- 
ton so harassed 
the enemy that 
it took Howe 

fifteen days to march twenty-five miles. Washington knew 
that the capital had to be given up, but his object was to 
prevent aid being sent to Burgoyne. On September 26 
Howe entered Philadelphia, Congress having fled to Lan- 
caster. Howe then placed most of his army at German- 
town, just north of Philadelphia, and here Washington 
gave battle on October 4. 

The Americans had peculiar advantages, and might have 




Sir William H©we 



1 84 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



won a victory at Germantown but for a dense fog, which 
caused a sad blunder — the firing of one division of the 
army upon another. This brought much confusion, and 
gave the victory to the enemy. This battle occurred thir- 
teen days before the surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga. 
Howe's army now settled snugly in Philadelphia for the 
winter. Washington led the patriot army to Valley Forge. 
Valley Forge. — The British army had an enjoyable 
winter in Philadelphia. They spent the time in a round 

of gayeties. Franklin 
wrote from Paris that 
Howe had not taken 
Philadelphia, but Phila- 
delphia had taken 
Howe. 

Valley Forge, a val- 
ley among the hills 
that border the winding 
Schuylkill, is twenty 
miles from Philadel- 
phia. To this spot 
Washington led his 
army of eleven thou- 
sand men in December, i 'j'j'j. Every reader knows the story 
of the suffering at Valley Forge. Many of the men could 
be traced in the snow by the blood that oozed from broken 
shoes. Many were without blankets, and had to sit by the 
fire all night to keep from freezing. Washington wrote 
Congress that he had 2898 men " unfit for duty because 
they are barefoot and otherwise naked." There was an 
abundance of food and clothing in the country, and the 
army suffered solely for want of better government. 
The first weeks were spent in building tents and log 




Washington's Headquarters at Valley 
Forge 



VALLEY FORGE 



85 



huts ; later the time was spent in drilling and preparing for 
battle. The troops were drilled by Baron Steuben, who had 
recently come from Europe. This noble old German, who 
had been schooled on the staff of Frederick the Great, 
spent many days drilling the men, and when they left 
Valley Forge, they could measure up to the standard of 
the British regulars. 




Washington and Lafayeite at Valley Forge 



It was during this fateful winter that a plot to depose 
Washington, known as ''the Conway Cabal" took place. 
It was hatched by Thomas Conway, who had a grievance 
against Washington. It was not successful, and afterward 
Conway wrote Washington that he sincerely regretted what 
he had done. 



1 86 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Battle of Monmouth. — General Howe was not vigorous 
enough to please the authorities, and late in the spring of 
1778 he was superseded by Sir Henry Clinton, who at 
once determined to abandon Philadelphia. Sending three 
thousand loyalists to New York by sea, he started across 
New Jersey with his army. The American army was soon 
in hot pursuit. It had been recruited, and, thanks to 
Steuben, it was well trained and anxious for battle. Clin- 
ton would have avoided an engagement, but Washington 
overtook him at Monmouth, New Jersey, and here on the 
28th of June a desperate battle was fought. The Ameri- 
cans came near winning a brilliant victory, and would 
certainly have done so, but for the treachery of Charles 
Lee, who refused to obey the orders of his chief. Neither 
side gained much advantage. Night ended the battle, 
and Washington intended to renew it in the morning ; but 
Clinton eluded him in the darkness, and hastened on to 
New York. 

Foreign Aid 

The colonies received little aid from abroad till the war 
had continued two or three years, and it is probable that 
they would have won their independence had they been 
left wholly to themselves. Nevertheless, when help came, 
it was received most gratefully. France was the first to 
lend a helping hand, chiefly through an unfriendly feeling 
toward England, which had taken Canada from her in the 
late war. At first France encouraged the Americans 
secretly, sending military stores worth $200,000. Two 
Americans had long been in Paris laboring to secure 
recognition from the French government. Soon after the- 
Declaration of Independence was passed, Benjamin Frank 
lin was sent to join them. He was already well known in 



FRIENDS FROM ABROAD 



187 



France, and was warmly received. A great Frenchman 
had said of him that he could " snatch the Hghtning from 
the sky and the scepter from tyrants." ^ 

Faithfully Franklin labored for many months to mold 
French opinion 
and secure the 
recognition of the 
United States as 
an independent 
nation. He suc- 
ceeded soon after 
the news of the 
surrender of Bur- 
goyne reached 
Paris, and the fol- 
lowing February, 
while Washington 
was at Valley 
Forge, the king 
of France made 
a treaty with the 
United States. 
This caused war 
between France 
and England, and in the end contributed greatly to Ameri- 
can independence. 

Friends from Abroad. — Among foreigners who came to 
aid the colonists in the war the most honored was the Mar- 
quis de Lafayette, a young French nobleman who left his 
youthful wife in his native land and embarked in his own 
vessel for America, to offer his Hfe in the cause of liberty. 
Arriving in the spring of 1777, he joined the army, and 

1 Franklin had invented the lightning rod._ 




BEN7AMIN Franklin 



l88 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

did valiant service to the end of the war. In all our his- 
tory no other foreigner has ever stood so high in the affec- 
tions of the American people as Lafayette. 

In the same ship with Lafayette came Baron de Kalb, 
another Frenchman, who fought nobly for American 
liberty and lost his Ufe at the battle of Camden. Among 
the names not to be forgotten was that of the PoUsh pa- 
triot, Kosciusko, who as a youth of twenty years, joined 
the army in i;76. Still another from this same unhappy 
Poland was Count Pulaski, who gave his life to the cause 
of liberty in the siege of Savannah. There was none of 
the foreign helpers more useful than Baron Steuben, whom 
we have noticed at Valley Forge. At the close of the war 
Steuben was granted a pension and a large tract of land 
in northern New York, and on this estate he spent the 
remainder of his days. 

War on the Frontier 

The half-settled wilderness of the frontier was the 
scene of many conflicts during the war, and often the 
result was the bloody massacre of innocent women and 
children. 

Border Warfare in the Southwest. — At the beginning of 
the long war, even before the battle of Lexington, a des- 
perate battle with the Indians took place at Point Pleasant, 
on the Great Kanawha River. The Indians were beaten 
and a treaty of peace was made at Watauga, and Ken- 
tucky was ceded to the white men. But the royal gov- 
ernor of North Carolina declared the treaty illegal and the 
Indians were soon again on the warpath. 

Among the white men who made this treaty was the 
most famous of American pioneers, Daniel Boone. Born 



THE WYOMING AND CHERRY VALLEYS 189 

and reared in the forest, Boone loved the wild life of the 
wilderness above all things. Soon after the treaty of 
Watauga was made, he moved into Kentucky and built a 
fort called Boonesborough. During the last years of the 
war Boone figured in various battles, the most destructive 
of which was the battle of the Blue Licks, fought on the 
banks of the Licking River in August, 1782. 

Soon after this George Rogers Clark led an army against 
the Indians in western Ohio and so weakened them that 
they never again attempted to cross the border into Ken- 
tucky. But the greatest achievement of Clark had been 
won several years before. With one hundred and eighty 
picked men he traversed the swamps and prairies of 
lUinois, capturing the various posts without bloodshed. 
This region was then added to Virginia and was called 
the county of Hlinois. 

The Wyoming and Cherry Valleys. — In north central 
Pennsylvania lies a beautiful valley called Wyoming. 
Here some three thousand people from Connecticut had 
settled before the war. On the 4th of July, 1778, ex- 
actly two years after the passing of the great Declaration, 
this valley became the scene of the bloodiest massacre of 
the war. The Americans were overpowered by a band 
of eight hundred Tories and Indians on July 3, and next 
day the bloody work was carried out with fiendish cruelty. 
The survivors fled for their lives and the place became 
for a time a field of desolation. 

In November of the same year a similar scene was 
enacted at Cherry Valley, in Otsego County, New York. 
After the men of the garrison had been defeated, the 
fiendish work began and thirty-two, mostly women and 
children, were put to death, while forty were carried into 
captivity. 



190 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Washington, exasperated at these outrages, determined 
to strike a telling blow. In the summer of 1779 he sent 
General Sullivan with an army of five thousand men into 
the Indian country of New York. On the site of the pres- 
ent city of Elmira Sullivan gave battle to an army of Tories 
and Indians much larger than his own, and defeated them 
with great slaughter. He then laid waste the Indian 
country and destroyed more than forty villages. The 
Iroquois nation never recovered from the fearful effect of 
Sullivan's raid. 

War on the Sea 

At the opening of the war the colonies had not, of 
course, any national navy. In 1775 Congress ordered the 
building of a navy, and the next year thirteen vessels were 
completed. Most of these were captured or burned before 
the end of the war, but not until they had done good ser- 
vice for the country. 

Privateering, by which is meant the sending against the 
enemy of privately owned merchant vessels, armed for the 
purpose, was extensively practiced during the Revolution. 
Every colony sent out privateers, Massachusetts leading 
with more than five hundred, Pennsylvania following with 
nearly that number. American privateers plowed the 
waters of the English Channel, the Irish Sea, and of many 
other parts of the world, making prizes of many English 
merchantmen. 

After France had declared war against England the 
French navy was used in aid of the Americans. In 1777 
Spain and the next year Holland declared war against 
England, after which the navies of these countries were 
also used ao^ainst the British. 



JOHN PAUL JONES 



191 



John Paul Jones. — The one famous American seamen 
of the war was John Paul Jones, a native of Scotland, a 
resident of Virginia. 
Jones with a squad- 
ron of three ships 
had a desperate 
fight off the coast 
of England in Sep- 
tember, 1779.^ In 
the midst of the bat- 
tle when the Ameri- 
can fire slacked for 
a moment the Brit- 
ish captain called 
out. *' Have you 
struck your colors .-^ " 
*' I have not yet be- 
gun to fight," was 
the laconic answer 
of Jones. After 
they had fought for 




John Paul Jones 



many hours in the darkness the British captain surrendered. 
The news of this victory made a great sensation in Europe.- 

Stony Point ; Arnold's Treason 



After the battle of Monmouth, Washington did little 
for three years but watch Clinton, who held the city of 

^ Jones's flagship was the Bonhomme Richard, French for Poor Richard of 
FrankHn's almanac. 

■^ Jones afterward entered the service of Russia and was knighted. He died 
in Paris in 1799. For more than a hundred years his burial place was un- 
known. In 1905 it was discovered and the remains were brought to the 
United States. 




Battle between the "Serapis" and "Bonhomme Richard' 
192 



ARNOLD^S TREASON 



193 



New York. In May, 1779, Clinton went up the Hudson 
and took possession of Stony Point, a bold, rocky promon- 
tory a few miles below West Point. Washington deter- 
mined to capture it, and in July, 1779, sent General 
Anthony Wayne, often called '* Mad Anthony," to make 
the attempt. Stealthily the Americans crept through the 
darkness and made a wild dash on the sleeping garrison. 
The British sprung to arms, but were soon overpowered 
and made prisoners. Washington did not intend to hold 
the place. He destroyed the fortifications, removed the can- 
non and stores, and left Clinton to reoccupy it at his leisure. 

Benedict Arnold was one of the ablest and bravest gen- 
erals in the war and, at 
first, one of the most 
trusted. Valiantly he 
had fought at Quebec 
and Saratoga, being 
severely wounded at 
each place. But later, 
after having a quarrel 
with Congress, and be- 
ing in command of West 
Point, Arnold's mind be- 
came filled with treason 
and he determined to 
betray his country and 
hand West Point over to 
the British. 

He had a long cor- 
respondence with Major 
John Andre of the British army, and the two men met on a 
dark night in September, 1780, on the bank of the Hud- 
son near Stony Point. Here arrangements were made for 




^'JAJOR Andre 



194 school;; HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the surrender of this gateway to the Hudson Valley. But 
Andre was captured by three Americans while returning 
to New York and the plot was disclosed ere it could be 
carried out. 

'' Arnold is a traitor and has fled to the British, whom 
can we trust now .'* " said Washington, while the tears rolled 
down his cheeks. Arnold had fled to join Clinton's army 
and to receive the price of his treachery, about $30,000. 
Andre was tried, convicted as a spy, and put to death. 
He was a brilliant, companionable young man, and Ameri- 
cans, as well as Englishmen, deplored the necessity of his 
execution. 

War in the South 

We saw some time ago that, near the beginning of the 
war, the South had exciting experiences at Moore's Creek 
and Charleston, after which there was little warfare in 
that section for nearly three years. After playing a losing 
game in the Hudson Valley, the British decided to attack 
the weaker colonies of the South. 

Georgia and the Carolinas. — In December, 1778, a 
British fleet, bearing thirty-five hundred regulars, appeared 
in southern waters and attacked Savannah. In a short 
time the city surrendered. The British then overran the 
state and soon had possession of it. In September of 
the next year Count D'Estaing arrived at the mouth of 
the Savannah with a French fleet. He joined with an 
American army under General Benjamin Lincoln and they 
bombarded the city for three weeks without capturing it. 
The French and Americans lost heavily and, saddest of 
all, the brave Pulaski was numbered with the slain. 

Two months later a British fleet from New York with 



CAMDEN AND KING'S MOUNTAIN 195 

Clinton and Cornwallis reached Savannah and, landing a 
large army, marched to Charleston, where Lincoln had 
transferred his army. Lincoln attempted to defend the 
city, but the odds against him were too great, and the city 
of Charleston, with its supplies and seven thousand sol- 
diers fell into the hands of the enemy. 

Clinton then sailed away and left Cornwallis in command 
at the South. The Americans were without an army in that 
section, but bands of patriots, led by such men as Francis 
Marion, the *' Swamp Fox," Thomas Sumter, the " South 
Carolina Gamecock," and Andrew Pickens, harassed the 
British incessantly. There were many Tories in that 
country and frequently they had bloody encounters with 
the patriots. 

Camden and King's Mountain. — The Americans were 
not long without an army in the South. The militia 
began to swarm from Maryland, Virginia, and North 
Carolina, and Washington sent General Gates, who had 
received the surrender of Burgoyne, to command them, 
Gates met the enemy near Camden, South Carolina, on 
August, 1780. An unusual incident now occurred. The 
armies were about ten miles apart and on the same night 
(August 15) each commander decided to creep upon the 
other and surprise him at daylight. They met halfway 
between, and at the coming of dawn the battle of Camden 
occurred. The Americans were defeated and the army 
scattered. 

This disaster was soon to be followed by news of a dif- 
ferent character. Cornwalhs sent Major Ferguson with 
twelve hundred men to devastate the back country. This 
roused the frontiermen who lived in the forests and among 
the mountains, and, hke the farmers at Concord and Sara- 
toga, they were soon marching thirteen hundred strong 



196 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to meet the foe. Many of them were hunters and Indian 
fighters and every man was a deadly shot with the rifle. 

They met Ferguson and his band on a spur of King's 
Mountain near the boundary between the Carolinas. A 
desperate battle was fought. The British loss in killed, 
including Ferguson, was more than ten times greater than 
the American, and the survivors were made prisoners. 
These hardy pioneers did no other service in the war, but 
it was a noble service and insured the final success of the 
Americans. 

Cowpens and Guilford. — After the battle at Camden 
General Greene was appointed to succeed Gates. Greene 

soon had a respect- 
able army collected. 
One of his first acts 
was to send the val- 
iant Daniel Morgan 
with nine hundred 
men against Tarle- 
ton, who was known 
as the scourge of the 
South. They met 
at Cowpens, not far 
from King's Moun- 
tain. The battle was 
short and ferocious. 
Tarleton was de- 
feated and his army 
almost annihilated. 
Cornwallis was 
much weakened by 
the defeat of Tarleton and he wished to revive the waning 
spirits of his men by defeating Greene. The latter, in 




General Greene 




BORMAY i CO., 



Scene of War in the South. 



\[ ' 



CORNWALLIS SURRENDERS AT YORKTOWN 197 



order to lure Cornwallis from his supplies, began an appar- 
ent retreat. For two hundred miles he fled before the 
enemy, then turned, at Guilford Courthouse, North Caro- 
lina, and gave battle. 
The Americans lost 
four hundred in the 
battle and the British 
six hundred. Corn- 
wallis, seeing that he 
was entrapped, re- 
fused Greene's chal- 
lenge for a second 
battle, and passed 
into Virginia. Here 
stood Lafayette with 
a small army to dis- 
pute his progress. 
Cornwallis tried for 
some months to draw 
Lafayette into open 
battle, or to entrap 
and capture his army. 

Failing in this he went down the York River and occupied 
Yorktown. 

Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown. — Washington was 
about to make an attack on Clinton in New York when he 
heard that Cornwallis was lodged in Yorktown. He then 
decided, in conjunction with Count Rochambeau, who had 
brought a French army to America, to hasten to Virginia 
and capture the army at Yorktown. Meantime a powerful 
French fleet, commanded by Count de Grasse, came up 
from the West Indies to prevent Cornwallis from escaping 
by sea. Hastening to Virginia, Washington joined his 




Lafayette 



THE TREATY OF PEACE I99 

army with that of Lafayette ; Yorktown was surrounded 
and CornwalHs was shut up in the town. Early in 
October the American-French army began the bombard- 
ment, and on the 17th, four years to the day after 
the surrender of Burgoyne, the white flag was seen waving 
over the parapet. Two days later the surrender was 
effected, and Lord Cornwallis with his army of eight 




Lord Cornwallis 



thousand men became prisoners of war. The rejoicing 
throughout America was loud and long ; everybody saw 
that the war was over and that America had won its 
independence. 

The Treaty of Peace. —The Revolution had two great 
results in world politics i. It gave birth to the greatest 
Republic in history, and 2. It wrested the governing 
power in England from the king and restored it to Parlia- 
ment. 



200 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The treaty of peace was signed in Paris on September 3, 
1783. The Americans who took part in its framing were 
Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams. Next to 
inde})endence, which was a foregone conclusion, the one 
great victory won by the Americans was the securing of 




langton a p ^ 
Hentlijuarters 



AMERICAN FORCES 



the Mississippi River instead of the Alleghany Mountains, 
as the western boundary of the country. The new-born 
nation, as now defined, extended from the Great Lakes to 
Florida and from the Mississippi to the Atlantic Ocean. A 
princely domain it was, and its possession by the Ameri- 
cans gave them the fondest hopes of national greatness in 
the future. 

SUMMARY 

The British determined to conquer the Hudson Valley by sending 
an army commanded by Burgoyne down from Canada and another 
under Howe up the river. But the plan miscarried ; Howe sailed for 
the Chesapeake and Burgoyne was captured, October 17, 1777. 




THE UNITED STATES 
At the Close of the Revolution, 

Showing Western Land t'laims of Slates. 



I 



THE BARONESS RIEDESEL 201 

Howe landed and moved to the banks of the Brandywine, where 
Washington offered him battle and was defeated. Howe then entered 
Philadelphia, and again Washington gave battle at Germantown. 
Howe spent the winter in Philadelphia, and Washington led his army 
to Valley Forge. France made a treaty with the United States in Feb- 
ruary, 1778. 

Clinton, who succeeded Howe in the spring of 1778, evacuated Phila- 
delphia ; Washington followed, and in June the battle of Monmouth 
was fought. After this Clinton remained in New York and Washington 
at White Plains for nearly three years. 

The seat of war was transferred to the South. Gates became the 
American commander, and was defeated at Camden. Greene suc- 
ceeded him, and at length Cornwallis settled at Yorktown. Washing- 
ton now hastened from New York to Virginia, a French fleet guarded 
the sea, and Cornwallis was forced to surrender (October 19, 1781). 

The treaty of peace, signed at Paris in 1783, acknowledged the inde- 
pendence of the United States, and made the Mississippi River the 
western boundary. The two chief results of the war was the giving 
birth to the United States as a nation and a restoring of the British 
government to Parliament. 

REFERENCES 

Same as for last preceding chapter. The biographies of any of the 
leading men of the period are also recommended. 

NOTES 

The Baroness Riedesel. — The wife of Baron Riedesel, one of Burgoyne's 
ablest generals, who accompanied her husband throughout the memorable Saratoga 
campaign, was a woman of rare beauty and accomplishments. She kept an elab- 
orate diary that gives a remarkable insight into the daily life of the army. She tells 
how the soldiers at first were "very merry, singing songs and panting for action," 
and how terrible was the suffering just before the surrender. From this diary, 
describing incidents of the surrender, we take the following : " As I passed through 
the American [lines] I observed, and this was a great consolation to me, that no 
one eyed us with looks of resentment; but they all greeted us and even showed 
compassion. When I drew near the tents, a handsome man approached me, took 
my children and hugged and kissed them. ' You tremble,' said he, addressing 
himself to me, ' be not afraid. . . . You will be very much embarrassed to eat with 
all these gentlemen ; come with your children to my tent, . . .' I now found that 
he was General Schuyler. Some days after this we arrived at Albany, where we so 



202 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

often wished ourselves ; but we did not enter it as we expected we should — victors ! 
We were received by the good General Schuyler, his wife, and daughters, not as 
enemies, but kind friends : and they treated us with the most marked attention and 
politeness, as they did General Burgoyne, who had caused General Schuyler's 
beautifully finished house to be burnt. In fact, they behaved like persons of 
exalted minds. General Burgoyne was struck with General Schuyler's generosity, 
and said to him, ' You show me great kindness, though I have done you much 
injury.' ' That was the fate of war,' replied the brave man; 'let us say no more 
about it.' " — See Elson's History, p. 288. 

Arnold's Strategy. — Immediately after the battle of Oriskany, Schuyler sent 
Benedict Arnold with twelve hundred men to the rescue of Fort Stanwix. While 
en route he captured several Tory spies, among whom was a half-witted fellow 
named Yan Yost Cuyler. All were condemned to death. The mother and brother 
of Cuyler, hearing of this, hastened to the camp to plead for his life. At length 
Arnold offered him his freedom if he would go to the camp of St. Leger and spread 
the report that Burgoyne was totally defeated and that a great American army was 
coming to the rescue of Fort Stanwix. Cuyler agreed, and his brother was detained 
as a hostage to be put to death in case of his failure. Cuyler did his part well. 
With a dozen bullet holes in his coat he ran into the British camp and declared 
that a great American host was close at hand, and that he had barely escaped with 
his life. He was known to many of the British as a Tory, and they readily 
believed his story. The Indians instantly took fright and began to desert. The 
panic soon spread to the regulars, the camp became a pandemonium, and ere 
noon of the next day, the whole army was in full flight to Canada. — See Fiske, 
Vol. I, p. 294. 

Israel Putnam. — General Putnam, farmer, innkeeper, and soldier, though 
almost threescore at the opening of the war, and never a master of military science, 
was yet one of the most heroic and picturesque figures of the war. He commanded 
a body of rangers in the French and Indian War, was present at the capture of 
Montreal, and of Havana, Cuba, and was a colonel in Bradstreet's Western expedi- 
tion against Pontiac in 1764. In the French War he was taken captive by the 
Indians, bound to a tree till the battle had ceased, and then taken into the forest 
to be tortured to death. He was stripped and tied to a sapling ; and the fagots piled 
at his feet were already ablaze when a French officer dashed through the savage 
horde, rescued Putnam, and carried him to Montreal, whence he was exchanged. 

The best known and perhaps the most daring feat in Putnam's checkered life 
was his riding down a precipice at West Greenwich, New York. He had but one 
hundred and fifty men, and was attacked by Governor Tryon with ten times that 
number. Ordering his men to retire to a swamp inaccessible to cavalry, he, on the 
near approach of the enemy, rode down a hundred stone steps that had been cu* 
into the solid rock for foot passengers. 

Captivity of Ethan Allen. — In the early part of the war, and not long after his 
bold capture of Ticonderoga, Ethan Allen, as stated in the text, was made prisoner 
and carried m irons to England. His treatment was brutal in the extreme, but his 
spirit was unconquered. On one occasion he knocked an officer down for spitting 
in his face. The captain who brought him back to New York, however, was a 



CAPTIVITY OF ETHAN ALLEN 203 

humane man, and Allen became greatly atfaci.ed to him and saved his lif , 
ventmg a mutiny among the prisoners on the shin A ^^ I""^" 

the condition being thafhe m'ust noHe e nVw V'ork l^TnUm ^^^^^ Z'^''^''' 
made to induce him to ioin the RHti=v. V u ^^^^"^ime every effort was 



CHAPTER XI 

THE CONSTITUTION AND SELF-GOVERNMENT 

The American people rejoiced exceedingly that the long- 
war had closed and that thcv were free from British con- 
trol, but the great problem of self-government was yet 
unsolved. The people had learned how to govern their 
respective states, but to join them together into a nation 
was a new and ditTicult business with which they were not 
familiar. 

The Temporary Government 

While the war was in progress, an honest effort was made 
to form a permanent Union, which proved, however, to be 
but temporarv. Congress framed and the states adopted, 
in 1 78 1, a Constitution which was called 

The Articles of Confederation. — This Constitution con- 
tained some good features. It gave to Congress the power 
to declare war or to make peace, the power of dealing with 
foreign nations, of regulating the coinage and the postal 
service, of building a navv, of raising an army, and the like. 
But on the whole this government was very weak. It was 
often called a '* rope of sand." For various reasons the peo- 
ple did not wish to give much power to a central govern- 
ment. Thev feared that it would become tyrannical, as 
England had been before the war, and besides, there was a 
strong state pride and the states were unwilling to yield 
much of their power to Congress. The Articles were very 

204 



DEFECTS IN THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 205 

defective and our first attempt at self-government ended 
almost in failure. 

Defects in the Articles of Confederation. — Some of the 
most serious defects in the Articles were: i. There was 
no president to execute the laws and no supreme court to 
interpret them. 2. Congress had no power over commerce. 
3. The general government had no relations with the citi- 
zen, but only with the state ; and 4, the most serious 
defect of all, Congress had no power over taxation. It 
could only ask the states each to provide so much money, 
and if they refused, there was no power to force them. In 
1783 Congress asked for a certain sum of money, and 
when a year and a half had passed, but one fifth of the sum 
had been raised. 

The Land Cessions. — Two commendable things were 
done at this period. At the close of the war seven of the 
states claimed western lands extending to the Mississippi 
River. Most of these claims were based on the royal 
charters, and they often conflicted. Here were the seeds 
of serious trouble for the future, l^ut at length the danger 
was averted when these states ceded their western lands to 
the general government. 

The Ordinance of 1787, adopted by Congress, after the 
land cessions had been made, was a plan of government 
for the territory northwest of the Ohio River. It ex- 
cluded slavery forever from this territory, and contained 
some other wise provisions. 

Drifting toward Anarchy. — While the Articles were in 
force, the states sometimes quarreled with one another, and 
Congress had no power to prevent their doing so. They 
violated the Articles ; they refused to agree to laying a 
tariff for the purpose of raising money to pay the old 
soldiers ; they refu.sed to permit foreign treaties of commerce 



2o6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to be enforced ; they issued floods of paper money, which 
soon became almost worthless. Riots occurred in many 
places. In Massachusetts Daniel Shays led two thousand 
men against the authorities and had to be suppressd by force 
of arms. 

The wiser men' of the country saw that something must 
be done, that a stronger and safer government must be 
secured, or anarchy would prevail and all hard-won fruits 
of the Revolution would be lost. While the country was 
in this unsettled condition, a national convention was called 
to meet at Philadelphia for the purpose of doing something 
toward bringing about better government. This tempor- 
ary government was very useful in teaching the people 
that a stronger union was necessary. 

The Constitution 

The convention that framed the Constitution, which is 
still the supreme law of our land, met in Philadelphia 
in May, 1787, in the same hall from which the Declaration 
of Independence had been issued eleven years before. 
There were fifty-five delegates, coming from all the thirteen 
states except Rhode Island. Among the leaders we find 
Benjamin Franklin and George Washington, James Madi- 
son and Alexander Hamilton. Washington was chosen 
chairman and the sessions began for the summer. It took 
four months to do the work, and in September the conven- 
tion produced the Constitution of the United States, exactly 
as it is now, except that fifteen amendments have since been 
added. 

Work of the Convention. — The delegates did not know 
what they would do when they met, and the people did 
not know what they wanted. They knew that a better 



THE NEW PLAN 20/ 

government was needed, but how it could be brought about 
was the unsolved problem. Some of the delegates wished 
to temporize, to produce something that would please every- 
body. Others favored doing thorough work. Among these 
was Washington, who said in a brief speech, " If, to please 
the people, we offer what we ourselves disapprove, how 
can we afterward defend our work } Let us raise a stand- 
ard to which the wise and honest can repair ; the event 
is in the hand of God." 

The New Plan. — It was soon decided that no attempt 
be made to amend the Articles of Confederation, but that 
a new Constitution be framed. A plan was brought forth 
by the delegates from Virginia providing for a government 
with three great departments, or coordinant branches : a 
legislative branch, that is, a Congress to make the laws ; 
an Executive branch, a President to enforce the laws ; and 
a judicial branch, a Supreme Court to interpret them. 
This plan was debated through the summer, was modified 
and changed in many particulars, until it became our con- 
stitution. 

The First Compromise. — An important dispute arose in 
the beginning between the large and small states. The 
delegates from the large states contended that in the two 
houses of Congress the representation should be based on 
population, while the small states wanted as much power 
in Congress as the large states. The dispute involved a 
deep principle. The large-state delegates wanted a gov- 
ernment to represent the people with no reference to state 
boundaries ; the other party wanted a confederation of 
sovereign states, similar to that under the Articles of Con- 
federation. 

In this contest the large-state party won a complete 
victory with regard to the President and the Supreme 



208 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Court (who represent the whole people and not any state) ; 
but with regard to Congress they won but half a victory. 
They yielded to a compromise by which the Upper House 
or Senate should represent the states, each sending two 
members, while in the Lower House the membership 
should be based on population. 

In the Senate, therefore, each state has two members ; 
in the House New. York has, at this time (1906), thirty- 




FiRST Fire Engine used in Brooklyn, 1785 



seven members, and Delaware, Nevada, and other states 
with small population have but one each. 

Other Compromises. — The delegates came from widely 
separated sections, as New England and the South, with 
different interests and systems of labor, and on many 



A VIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION 



209 



points they could not agree ; but instead of breaking up 
and doing nothing they agreed to compromise. 

A question arose concerning counting the slaves in tak- 
ing the census for representatives in Congress. The 
North, which had few slaves, wanted the slaves left out 
of the count ; the South wanted them included so as to in- 
crease its representation. They compromised by deciding 
to count three fifths of the slaves. Later it was decided 
that in laying direct taxes the same plan should be fol- 
lowed. 

Another compromise came about in this way. The 
North favored giving Congress full power over foreign 
and interstate commerce ; the South would have each 
state control its own commerce as before. Before this was 
settled another question arose — concerning the African 
slave trade. The North wanted to shut it off, while the 
South would keep it open. 

The two questions were then compromised. The South 
agreed to give Congress power over commerce, and the 
North agreed to prevent Congress from prohibiting the 
slave trade before the year 1808. 

There were also many other questions to be settled, such 
as how to elect a President, what should be his powers, 
and how long should be his term of office ; what should be 
the powers of Congress, and how should the members of 
the Supreme Court be appointed. These and many other 
things were debated and decided as we have them in the 
Constitution. When the document was completed (Sep- 
tember 17), all but sixteen of the members signed it, thirteen 
having gone to their homes. 

A View of the Constitution. — Our Constitution, though 
not perfect, is the most important document of its kind 
in the world. Not much of it was new. The makers 



2IO SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

borrowed from many sources, especially from the state 
governments. The President and a Congress with two 
chambers resembles the colonial governments with a gov- 
ernor and a legislature of two chambers, or, to some extent, 
resembles the British government with a king and two 
houses of Parliament. 

The Constitution created a far stronger government than 
the one it was to replace. It gives to the national govern- 
ment the power to coin money, to regulate commerce, to 
fix weights and measures, to tax the people, to make war, 
and arrange treaties with foreign nations. But with all 
this it leaves a great deal of power to the states, and a 
large majority of the laws under which we live are state 
^ laws. 

2;i> The Constitution before the People. — After the conven- 
tion had decided that if nine states adopted the Constitution, 
it should go into operation, it was sent to Congress, then 
sitting in New York. Congress sent it forth to the different 
states to be acted on. 

Now there were yet dangerous breakers ahead for the 
ship Constitution. A great many of the people feared 
that the government would be too strong and that Congress 
would become tyrannical. Among the opponents were 
Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee. The people that 
favored the new plan of government called themselves 
Federalists, and the Federalist party became the first 
great political party in America. The opponents of the 
Constitution were called Anti-federalists. 

The first state to ratify the Constitution was Delaware 
(December 7, 1787) and the second was Pennsylvania. So 
strong was the opposition that in some states the Federal- 
ists found it very hard to secure a majority. At length 
Massachusetts and then Virginia gave their approval and 



THE CONSTITUTION BEFORE THE PEOPLE 21 1 

the new plan was secure. Nearly a year had passed after 
finishing the Constitution before the necessary nine states 
had adopted it. Two states hesitated still longer. North 
Carolina did not join the Union till November, 1789, and 
Rhode Island joined in May, 1790.^ 

The making and adopting of the Constitution was a great 
achievement. Never before in human history had a people 
brought about so great a political revolution without blood- 
shed. Never had a people struck so fine a balance between 
national strength and local self-government.^ To realize 
the incalculable advantage of our Union one has only to 
compare the marvelous harmony of our states in their re- 
lations to one another with the incessant strife, rebellion, 
and revolution among the states of South America, where 
no union was formed. 

SUMMARY 

Under the Articles of Confederation there was no executive or judici- 
ary, and Congress had no direct relations with the people, no power 
over commerce or taxation, and could not enforce its own laws. Ex- 
cessive state pride and a fear of national oppression prevented a strong 
government from being established. 

The states owning western lands ceded them to the general govern- 
ment, and thus laid the first solid basis of a national government. 

A constitutional convention was called to amend the Articles, and 
it chose to frame a New Constitution, which was completed and sent to 
Congress in September, 1787. It was gradually adopted by the states 
and became the supreme law of the land. 

The Constitution created three coordinate departments — a legis- 
lative, executive, and judicial. It gives much power to the general 
government, but much power is also reserved to the states, or the 
people. 

1 For the exact date of the admission of all the states see the Appendix. 

2 Mr. Gladstone, the great English statesman, pronounced our Constitution 
the " greatest work ever struck off at any one time by the mind and purpose 
of man." 



CHAPTER XII 
TWELVE YEARS OF FEDERAL SUPREMACY 

A View of the People 

Before proceeding to the organization of the government 
let us take a glance at the people as we find them in the 
closing years of the century. Much that we have said of 
the life and habits of the people in 1760 in the chapter on 
*' Colonial Life " will apply to the same people forty years 
later. But in some respects important changes were tak- 
ing place. 

Population and its Distribution. — The Constitution re- 
quires that a census be taken every ten years. The first 
census, taken in 1790, showed a population of 3,929,214, 
or in round figures four millions.^ Of this number 700,000 
were slaves, 60,000 free negroes, and about 80,000 Indians. 
The largest city was Philadelphia with 42,000, New York 
coming second with about 33,000. The people of the 
South had begun to cross the Appalachian Mountains in 
considerable numbers. Kentucky was admitted to the. 
Union as the fifteenth state in 1792 (Vermont having be- 
come the fourteenth the year before), and Tennessee be 
came the sixteenth in 1796. But with all this the great 
mass of the people still clung to the seaboard, not more 
than one twentieth having crossed the mountains. 

1 For the population at each census see Chronology beginning on p. xxi. 

212 



OCCUPATIONS 



213 



Occupations. — America at this time was still a nation of 
farmers, and the crops raised were the same as mentioned 
before — grain and vegetables in the northern and middle 
states, tobacco in Virginia and Maryland, while the chief 
staple further south was rice. Cotton was not raised in 
great quantities because of the difficulty of separating the 
seed from the fiber; but in 1794 Eli Whitney, a northern 
school teacher living in Georgia, invented the cotton gin by 
which one man could do the work of many. After this 
cotton was grown in ever 
increasing quantities, until 
it became the great staple 
of the South. 

There were few manufac- 
tures except shipbuilding. 
Foreign commerce resumed 
its importance soon after 
the war, and to the trade 
with Europe was added a 
flourishing trade with China 
and the East Indies. Steam 
navigation was unknown 

and steam power in moving machinery had not come into 
use. All machines were operated by human muscle ; a 
farmer cut his hay with the hand scythe and his wheat with 
the cradle or the sickle. A few inventions, however, such 
as the "spinning jenny" had come into use, and their im- 
portance stimulated inventors to greater achievements. 

In the matter of travel and transportation little progress 
had been made since 1760. Wagon roads were gradually 
improved. The first turnpike, that is, a road with a bed 
made soUd and smooth with layers of stone, was con- 
structed from Philadelphia to Lancaster in 1792. The 




The First Cotton Gin 



214 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

people were seized with a canal fever about this time, but 
the era of canals and turnpikes properly belongs to the 
next generation and will be noticed later. 

Negro Slavery. — Up to the opening of the Revolution all 
the colonies had slaves, though there were few in the North 
compared with those held in the South. For a hundred 
years before this there was some agitation against slavery. 
The agitators declared that the principles of Christianity 
and of the Declaration of Independence, that all men are 
endowed with the right to " life, liberty and the pursuit 
of happiness," are out of harmony with the practice of 
holding men in lifelong bondage on account of the color 
of their skin and the accident of their birth. 

At this period a new and more humane spirit was taking 
hold of men's minds. It softened the criminal laws, modi- 
fied the hitherto harsh treatment of the insane, and, a gen- 
eration later, it released the prisoners for debt. It was 
this new spirit that caused a further agitation against 
slavery, and at length brought about its abolishment 
in the northern states, where it had not taken a deep 
hold on the life of the people. Pennsylvania aboHshed 
slavery in 1780; Massachusetts and New Hampshire 
about the same time did the same through decisions of 
the courts. The other northern states followed the example, 
some by gradual abolition, until no slaves could be found 
north of Mason and Dixon's line. 

Administration of Washington, 1789- 1797 

When the time came for choosing a President, the 
eyes of all turned to Washington, the noble commander 
who had led the patriot armies to victory. The Constitu- 
tion provided that the President and Vice President be 
chosen by an electoral college, composed of as many men 



ORGANIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT 



215 



from each state as the state had senators and representa- 
tives in Congress. The first electoral colle2:e voted iinan- 




George Washington 



imously for George Washington for President and elected 
John Adams Vice President.^ It was decided that New 
York City be made the first temporary capital and that 

1 See Table of Presidents, in Appendix. 



2l6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the new Constitution go into operation on the first Wed- 
nesday in March (which happened to be the 4th), 1789. 
Organization of the Government. — The 4th of March 
came and the new government was ushered in with the 
boom of cannon, the ringing of bells, and the shouts of 
the people. But the President was not inaugurated on 
that day ; he must first be notified of his election by 
Congress. Nor did Congress meet on the 4th ; a quo- 




\^« 







r-r-T^^'--'"- 



» 'flit I 'fJW y ^M'^l mm 




Fkderal Hall, New York, 1789 
Where Washington was inaugurated 



rum had not yet reached New York. Slowly the members 
arrived ; on April i the House was organized and the 
Senate on the 6th. Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsyl- 
vania was elected Speaker of the House. The two houses 
adopted rules for their own convenience, counted the elec- 
toral vote, and notified Washington and Adams of their 
election. 

Inauguration of Washington. — On receiving the noti- 



FIRST ACTS OF THE FIRST CONGRESS 21/ 

fication Washington left his Mount Vernon home, made a 
hurried visit to his aged mother at Alexandria, and pro- 
ceeded to New York. Arriving there on April 23, ^ he 
was received with a most enthusiastic welcome. The 
inauguration took place on April 30, at Federal Hall, 
Broad and Wall streets. At noon Washington stepped 
out on the balcony in the presence of a vast multitude 
and took the oath of office. The ceremony over, the 
voice of the multitude rose in cheer after cheer, the artil- 
lery roared from the battery, and bells were rung all over 
the city. Washington then read his inaugural address to 
Congress within the Senate chamber, after which the 
whole body proceeded to St. Paul's chapel on Broadway 
for a religious service. 

First Acts of the First Congress. — No Congress in 
our history has had greater responsibilities than the 
First Congress. Many of its acts were of permanent 
importance and are still in force. 

One of the first acts was to pass a tariff measure 
which, signed by the President on the 4th of July, is 
known as the Tariff of 1789. In a short time this tariff 
was yielding $200,000 a month, quite enough for the regu- 
lar expenses of the government. 

The second important act was the creating of the 
Cabinet. Three departments were created at the first 
session. The head of the department of foreign affairs 
was called Secretary of State and Washington chose 
Thomas Jefferson to fill the office. The second was the 
finance department and Alexander Hamilton was chosen 
as Secretary of the Treasury. Third, General Henry 
Knox became the first Secretary of War. Some time later 
a fourth department, that of Attorney-general, was created 

1 Adams had arrived earlier and had been sworn into office on the 8th. 



2l8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and the first appointment to it was Edmund Randolph. 
The Postmaster-general did not become a member of the 
Cabinet for forty years after this, though his office dated 
back to colonial times. ^ 

The next great act was the creating of the Supreme Court, 
and also of Circuit and District courts. The first Supreme 
Court was composed of a Chief Justice and five associates, 
the first Chief Justice being John Jay of New York. 

The Cabinet, as we now have it, was not provided for 
in the Constitution ; the members were simply heads of 
departments, which by custom have become advisers of the 
President. The Supreme Court, however, was specially 
provided for as one of the three coordinate branches of the 
government. Only the details of its organization were left 
to Congress. 

Hamilton's Treasury Report, made to Congress, showed 
a public debt of about $54,000,000, nearly a fourth of 
which was owed to foreign creditors, the rest being owed 
to American citizens who had loaned their money to the 
government during the war. The states had also sent 
troops against the British, each at its own expense, and the 
state debts from this cause were now about $21,000,000. 

Hamilton proposed that the state debts be added to 
the national debt and that the states be thus relieved from 
paying them. This was known as " Assumption " ; that is, 
an assuming of the state debts. This would strengthen 
the national government and lessen the importance of the 
states — just what Hamilton wanted.^ It awakened much 

iThe Cabinet has grown with the business of the country and now is 
composed of nine members. The Secretary of the Navy was added in 1798; 
the Postmaster-general in 1829 ; Secretary of the Interior in 1849 J Agricul- 
ture in 1889, and of Commerce and Labor in 1903. 

■^To make this plainer : Suppose a number of brothers, each in business 
for himself, each owed you a sum of money. You would be anxious that 



LOCATING THE CAPITAL 219 

opposition from the state rights party, led by Thomas 
Jefferson. 

Locating of the CapitaL — Before this question was set- 
tled another arose — where should the capital be placed ? 
The southern people, including Jefferson, preferred to 
have it on the banks of the Potomac ; the northern people 
would have it in the North. Hamilton and Jefferson each 
had a following in Congress large enough to prevent the 
other from passing his measure, but not large enough to 
secure the passage of his own. The two men therefore 
made a bargain by which Jefferson favored Hamilton's 
measure. Assumption, and Hamilton favored Jefferson's 
measure — placing the capital on the Potomac — and 
both measures were soon afterward passed in Congress. 

A long contest was thus begun between those who 
favored a very strong central government, led by 
Hamilton, and those who leaned to state rights, led by 
Jefferson. The Jefferson followers were called the Strict 
Construction party because they wanted the powers of 
Congress to be confined to the strict letter of the Consti- 
tution. The Hamilton party was called Loose Construc- 
tionists because they favored construing the Constitution 
loosely and giving Congress enlarged powers. 

After securing assumption Hamilton succeeded in gain- 
ing two or three other important measures in accord- 
ance with his loose construction views — i. The funding 

they succeed because your money was invested. But suppose their father 
assumed these debts and made himself responsible for their payment. Your 
interest would at once be transferred to the business of the father. Again, 
suppose a business man finds it difficult to pay his debts and a rich friend 
does it for him; he is relieved of his debts, but he loses his independence. 
Thus the states would lose a portion of their importance if assumption were 
carried. One of the sources of [strength in a government is a moderate 
national debt. 



220 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the debt, that is, changing it to interest-bearing bonds ; 
2. An excise,^ or an internal revenue tax on distilled spirits ; 
and 3. The estabHshing of a United States Bank. The 
bank was chartered in 1791 for twenty years. It was to 
have the government deposits and was to loan the govern- 
ment money when needed. 

The Whisky Insurrection. — One of these laws, the ex- 
cise law, caused the Whisky Insurrection of 1794. The 
people of western Pennsylvania condensed their grain into 
whisky, because it was easier to get it to market in that 
form. And they refused to pay the revenue tax on it. 
This was a test of the Constitution. Was the government 
strong enough to enforce its own laws ? An army marched 
across the Alleghanies to put down the revolt and enforce 
the laws. No blood was shed ; the people decided to pay 
their taxes and so the Constitution stood the test. 

Rise of Political Parties. — It was this contest between 
the friends of a strong Union on the one side, and the 
friends of state rights, or greater individual Hberty on the 
other, that first brought about the rise of political parties. 
As we have noticed, the people at the time of adopting the 
Constitution were called Federalists and Anti-federalists. 
After it was adopted the Anti-federalist party ceased to 
exist, and the Federalists took control of the government. 
It was this party, led by Hamilton, that secured the pas- 
sage of the laws we have noticed — assumption, funding 
of the debt, excise, and the bank. 

But Jefferson feared that the government would become 
too centralized and that the people, the plain people, as 
Lincoln called them, would not have the rights they 
should have in the government. In the interests of the 
common people, therefore, and on the strict construction 

1 The teacher should explain these terms to the pupils. 



WASHINGTON'S SECOND ELECTION 221 

theory, Jefferson began (about 1793) to organize a new 
party. He named it Republican ; but some called it 
Democratic and many years later the name Democratic 
came to be used exclusively. This party grew very 
rapidly and some years later it gained control of the 
government and made Jefferson President. 

The contest between these two opposing tendencies, 
which we may call Liberty and Union, or Democracy and 
Nationality, covered many years, and indeed it has not 
been fully settled to this day ; but it was hottest during 
these first years. So fierce became the strife between 
Jefferson and Hamilton that Washington was embarrassed 
by it, and to relieve him, both men resigned from the 
Cabinet. 

Washington's Second Election. — Washington fully in- 
tended to retire from public life at the end of his first 
term ; but Jefferson and Hamilton both urged him to 
stand for a second election, and he did so, Washington 
held himself for the most part above party lines, and for 
the second time he was elected by a unanimous vote of 
the electoral college, John x^dams being again chosen 
Vice President. 

The inauguration took place this time at Philadelphia 
(1793). New York had been the seat of government but 
one year when it was removed to Philadelphia where it 
remained for ten years. 

Relations with France. — A few years before this time 
(1789) there was a violent uprising in France known as 
the French Revolution. P'or centuries the French people 
had been oppressed, and at last they rose in their anger, 
beheaded their king, and turned their monarchy into a 
republic. In the spring of 1793 the French Republic 
sent its first minister to America. His name was Edward 



222 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Charles Genet, known as *' Citizen " Genet ; for the French 
had abolished all more pretentious titles. 

Genet expected to secure the aid of America in the 
war between France and other European countries, and 
began to fit out privateers as if he owned the whole coun- 
try, but he found a serious obstacle in the attitude of 
President Washington. 

Proclamation of Neutrality. — Washington saw that it 
would be very unwise for the United States to take part 
in the European wars and determined to make a stand for 
neutrality and set an example for the future. Advised by 
his Cabinet, he decided that the treaty of alliance with 
France of 1778 did not mean that we should take part in 
an aggressive war, such as France was now waging. He 
therefore issued his Proclamation of Neutrality, declaring 
that the United States would not take either side in the 
war. 

Genet was offended and threatened to appeal from 
the President to the people. Up to this time many of the 
people had sympathized with the French, and had bitterly 
censured the President for refusing to aid them. But 
when the French minister offered him this indignity, the 
feeling against Washington was greatly softened, the old 
love of the people for the Father of his Country again 
rose, and Genet found that his influence was at an end. 

Trouble with England. — Our relations with England at 
this time were no better than with France. The Ameri- 
can people had several grievances against England ; the 
most serious were, i. The seizing of American vessels 
trading with the French West Indies ; 2. The holding of 
Detroit and other western posts, which, ever since the 
Revolution, the English had refused to give up because, 
as they declared, America had not carried out the treaty 



THE JAY TREATY 223 

with respect to the Tories, and .3. The impressment of sea- 
men. EngHsh sailors, abandoning their country's navy, 
often obtained employment in American vessels, and re- 
fused to return when called to help fight the battles of 
their country. England then adopted the practice of seiz- 
ing them from our ships and forcing them into the Eng- 
lish navy. Often naturalized Americans, and sometimes, 
by mistake, native-born Americans, were taken. Against 
these indignities our government protested in vain. 

England at length yielded a Httle ; she modified her 
harsh order concerning the West India trade, and Wash- 
ington now felt that he could make a further move toward 
bringing about better conditions without compromising our 
national honor. He therefore decided to send an envoy 
to England to make a treaty of commerce, and for the 
difficult task he chose John Jay, chief justice of the 
Supreme Court, 

The Jay Treaty. — Jay sailed in the spring of 1794, and a 
year later the treaty known by his name was laid before the 
President and Senate, and was accepted. When the con- 
tents of the treaty became known to the people, the Repub- 
licans were fierce with anger. They denounced the treaty 
and hung Jay in effigy, declaring that he had sold his 
country for British gold. There is no doubt that Jay had 
been true to his country and that the treaty was as favor- 
able as any one could have secured. It is true that the 
British refused to abandon the practice of impressing sea- 
men, and that most of its provisions were favorable to the 
British. But it contained some good features, as the 
promise of the British to pay for seizures of American 
vessels, and to give up the western posts. It was this 
treaty no doubt that prevented war between the two coun- 
tries at that time. 



224 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

A treaty with Spain was made in 1 795 by which that 
country agreed to open the mouth of the Mississippi River 
to American trade. 

Retirement of Washington. — Had Washington chosen 
to stand for a third term he could easily have been elected, 
though not unanimously, perhaps, as he had twice been 
chosen. But he refused to be a candidate. For nearly forty 
years he had been in public life and now he chose to retire 
and spend the evening of his life on his plantation on the 
Potomac. Two and a half years later (in December, 1799), 
after a brief illness, he was called to his final rest.^ 

Seldom in history has so much depended on a single 
life as in the case of Washington. Without him the war 
of the Revolution could hardly have succeeded. When 
the new government was organized, the steadying qualities, 
the conservative strength, of this noble man seemed essen- 
tial to the life of the new-born Republic. Washington was 
not a great genius, but his great wisdom and courage, his 
unerring judgment, his manliness, his magnanimity of soul, 
rendered him exactly fitted for the position in which Provi- 
dence placed him. Never in history has a man more 
truly deserved the title that has been, by common consent, 
conferred on him — "The Father of his Country." 

Administration of John Adams, i 797-1 801 

John Adams, the Federalist, was elected President over 
Thomas Jefferson, the Republican, in 1796, after a bitter 
contest. As the Constitution then stood the two receiving 
the highest number of electoral votes should be President 
and Vice President. Jefferson, being second in the num- 
ber of votes received, became Vice President, though he 

^ See note at end of chapter. 



TROUBLE WITH FRANCE 



225 



belonged to a different political party. ^ Adams was able 
and patriotic and thoroughly trained in statesmanship ; but 
he was not wise and tactful. His administration was con- 
cerned with two important subjects, which absorbed public 
attention during the four years. These were our strained 
relations with 
France and the 
passing of certain 
unpopular laws, 
known as the Alien 
and Sedition Laws. 
Trouble with 
France. — France 
was deeply of- 
fended at America 
for concluding the 
Jay Treaty with 
England, and when 
Charles C. Pinck- 
ney was sent as 
minister to that 
country, the 
French refused to 
receive him. It 
was now America's 
turn to be offended, 
and there was great indignation at the rejection of Pinckney. 
Mr. Adams, who had been inaugurated but a few days 
before the news of Pinckney's rejection reached America, 
shared the resentment of the people. He called an extra 
session of Congress, and when it met, he sent a mesasge 

1 This defect in the Constitution was corrected by the twelfth amendment, 
adopted in 1804. 
Q 




John Adams 



226 SCHOOL HISTORY OP^ THE UNITED STATES 

that contained some very pointed statements about the 
insolence of the French. 

The President determined, however, and Congress agreed 
with him, that one more effort for peace be made. A mis- 
sion of three men, John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry, and C. C. 
Pinckney were sent, in the hope that the differences might 
be adjusted. 

The X. Y. Z. Mission. — When our three envoys reached 
Paris, they were informed by agents of the French Direc- 
tory, or governing power, that France would not treat with 
the United States until three demands had been compHed 
with : I. Parts of President Adams's message, offensive to 
France, must be modified ; 2. A direct bribe, amounting 
to about $250,000, must be paid the Directory; 3. The 
United States niust loan France a large sum of money to 
carry on her war with England.^ 

The three Americans could do nothing but report to 
their government. This they did, and when the letters of 
the Frenchmen making these demands were published 
(over the signatures X, Y, and Z), there was a wild out- 
burst of indignation against France. " War with France " 
was the cry on every side. 

Congress caught the war spirit of the people and voted 
to estabHsh a Navy Department as an addition to the Cab- 
inet, to establish harbor defenses, to raise an army, and to 
purchase cannon and military stores. The French did not 
really want war with America, and when they discovered 
that the Americans were ready to fight, they changed their 
tone. The Directory meekly recalled the three offensive 
demands and gave notice that if another minister were sent, 
he would be received. 

1 It was at this time that Pinckney is said to have answered, "Millions for 
defense, but not a cent for tribute." 



UNPOPULAR TAX LAWS 22/ 

Meantime war had actually begun on the sea and the 
war spirit in America was unabated. General Washing- 
ton was appointed commander in chief. But suddenly 
President Adams made a bold move by which all danger 
of war was removed — he appointed another minister to 
France. Adams did this without consulting the other 
leaders of his party, and they were deeply offended, as 
they declared that, as France had been the offending 
party, she should be the first to appoint a minister. The 
action of Adams split the Federalist party and rendered 
his own reelection impossible ; but it brought peace with 
France, and that peace has not been broken in a hun- 
dred years. 

Unpopular Tax Laws. — The FederaHst party was weak- 
ened, not only by the action of President Adams, but also 
by passing unwise laws. The preparation for war had 
made further taxation necessary, and Congress passed the 
House and Slave tax laws, by which owners of houses and 
slaves had to pay direct taxes to the government. These 
were unpopular and drove many owners of houses and 
slaves out of the party. In eastern Pennsylvania the 
house tax caused an uprising among the farmers, led by 
John Fries and known as the Fries Rebellion, which was 
put down by troops. Still more unpopular was a set of 
laws known as 

The Alien and Sedition Laws. — These were passed in 
the summer of 1798. The Alien Law gave the President 
power to banish from the country any alien whom he con- 
sidered a dangerous or suspicious person. It was aimed 
at Frenchmen in America, but was never enforced. The 
Sedition Law imposed a fine and imprisonment on any one 
who pubUshed false or malicious statements about the 
President, Congress,, or the government. Several Repub- 



228 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

lican editors were thrown into prison through the working 
of this law. The law was bitterly denounced as a blow at 
the right of freedom of speech and the liberty of the 
press. These laws expired two years later. 

The Kentucky and the Virginia Resolutions. — Soon 
after the A Hen and Sedition Laws were enacted they were 
soundly denounced by the legislature of Kentucky in a set 
of resolutions, and the year following by the legislature of 
Virginia in a similar way. These resolutions declared that 
Congress had exceeded its powers in passing the Alien 
and Sedition Laws and that whenever Congress thus as- 
sumed powers not granted by the Constitution, the several 
states had the right to interpose or even nullify a national 
law. It was afterward found that Jefferson had written 
the Kentucky resolutions and Madison those of Virginia. 
The resolutions created a profound sensation throughout 
the country and their effect was felt for sixty years. 

Fall of the Federalist Party. — The time had come for a 
new election. John Adams was the Federahst candidate 
and Thomas Jefferson the candidate of the Republicans, 
as four years before. The campaign was the most acri- 
monious in our history, the unpopular Federahst laws be- 
ing the chief issue. The Republicans won, but when the 
votes were counted, it was found that Aaron Burr, who had 
been placed on the Republican ticket for Vice President, 
had received the same number of votes as Jefferson. 
There was no election, as the Constitution did not author- 
ize the electors to choose between the two. The election 
then went to the House of Representatives. Here was a 
dilemma. The House was controlled by the Federalists, 
who were so chagrined at their defeat at the polls that 
they first thought of preventing an election and of choos- 
ing a temporary President from their own party. Had they 



FOREIGN RELATIONS 229 

done this civil war would no doubt have ensued. Next 
they decided to elect Burr in order to beat their opponents 
and many of them voted for Burr. Hamilton, the great 
Federalist leader, then did a noble act. He advised his 
friends in the House to vote for Jefferson, or to vote blank 
so that the Republicans could elect him, as it was danger- 
ous to make a man President who had not been the choice 
of any party. On the thirty-sixth ballot Jefferson was 
elected and Burr became Vice President. 



SUMMARY 

The Population in 1790 was nearly 4,000,000, of whom 700,000 were 
slaves, 60,000 free negroes, and 80,000 Indians. Nineteen-twentieths 
of the people lived east of the Appalachians. Little progress had been 
made in the invention of machinery or in the means of traveling. 

A humane spirit brought about the abolition of slavery in the North, 
where it had taken but a mild hold on the industrial life of the people. 

Washington, chosen first President, was inaugurated in New York, 
April 30, 1789, the new Constitution having gone into operation on 
March 4. 

The First Congress enacted the Tariff of 1789, created the Cabinet, 
organized the Supreme Court, placed the capital on the Potomac, 
assumed the state debts, funded the national debt, passed an excise 
law,, and chartered the United States Bank for twenty years. 

The great struggle of the period was between the Federalists, led by 
Hamilton, who stood for a strong central government, and the Repub- 
licans, led by Jefferson, who emphasized personal liberty and state 
rights. 

Foreign Relations. — The attitude of the French Republic led Presi- 
dent Washington to issue a Proclamation of Neutrality (1794) by which 
a policy was adopted to which this country has since adhered. 

England meantime held our western posts, captured our vessels on 
the sea, and impressed our seamen. At length John Jay was sent 
to London to arrange a treaty of commerce, which, being, adopted, 
improved our relations with that country. France, angered at the Jay 
Treaty, refused to receive the American envoys, captured American 



230 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

vessels, but receded from her position when the United States showed 
a disposition to go to war with her. 

The Presidential election in 1796 resulted inavictory of the Federalists^ 
John Adams being elected over Jefferson. The two important subjects 
that absorbed public attention during Adams's term were the trouble 







Mount Vernon 



with France and the passing of the Alien and Sedition Laws. These 
laws awakened much opposition and brought forth the Kentucky and 
Virginia Resolutions. 

The election in 1800 resulted in an important political revolution, 
the Republicans defeating the Federalists. The electoral college 
failed to choose a President, and the election went to the House, where 
Jefferson was elected over Aaron Burr. 



NOTES 

The Death of Washington. — On December 15, 1799, one of Washington's 
attendants, named Tobias Lear, despatched a letter from Mt. Vernon to President 
Adams at Philadelphia, a part of which is as follows: — 

" Sir: It is with inexpressible grief that I have to announce to you the death of 



THE NEW CAPITAL 23 1 

the great and good General Wazhington. He died last evening between ten and 
eleven o'clock, after a short illness of about twenty-four hours. His disorder was 
an inflamed throat from cold. His last scene corresponded with the whole tenor 
of his life. Not a groan nor a complaint escaped him, though in deep distress. 
With perfect resignation and a full possession of his reason he closed his well-spent 
life." On the 12th Washington went out to ride about his large farm and was 
caught in a storm of rain and hail, but he continued his ride for some hours and 
took a severe cold which soon developed into acute laryngitis. The physicians bled 
him twice, and they have been severely criticised for this ; but letting blood for 
almost every ill was common in those days. 

Washington was tall and muscular. He wore a No. 13 boot, his hands were 
large, his hair light brown, his eyes cold gray, and his voice rather weak. He 
weighed two hundred pounds, could cover twenty-two feet in a single running jump, 
and was an excellent shot, swordsman, and rider. He was probably the richest of 
our Presidents thus far. He owned thousands of acres of land in Virginia and a 
one time twenty thousand acres along the Ohio River. His estate was valued at 
about half a million dollars, but it consisted of lands, herds, and slaves, and he was 
at times hard pressed for money. He had to borrow money to take him to New 
York to be inaugurated President. 

The New Capital. — The government began its operations in the city of New 
York, in the spring of 1789; but some months later it moved to Philadelphia, the 
largest and most important city in the Union, and here it remained for ten years. 
In the autumn of 1800, the capital was removed to Washington City, and Jefferson 
was the first President to be inaugurated there. The District of Columbia lay on 
both sides of the Potomac, and the Maryland side was chosen for the seat of govern- 
ment. The farmers who owned the land deeded it to the commissioners and 
received in compensation half the unused lots, after the streets, parks, and public 
building grounds were reserved. Major L'Enfant planned and laid out the city. 
The cornerstone of the capitol was laid in September, 1793. When the government 
removed thither, the city was a wilderness. There was but one good hotel. The 
President's house was in an open field, and this, with the unfinished Capitol and a 
few scattered houses along the unpaved streets, constituted the town. There was 
no business and no society. The city grew slowly, and eight years after Congress 
had removed thither, a proposition to return to Philadelphia was seriously con- 
sidered. But as the nation grew the city improved, and to-day it is pronounced the 
most beautiful capital city in the world. 



CHAPTER XIII 
JEFFERSON AND THE DEMOCRACY 

It was no doubt a good thing for the young republic 
that in the election of 1800 the fgovernment passed to the 
control of democracy, that is, the common people. The 
great majority of followers of Jefferson were of this class. 
They needed to be trained in patriotism, and nothing could 
do this so well as to give them control of the government. 

The Federalist party had done a noble work in laying 
the foundations of a strong central government ; but its 
work was done, and in the following years the party passed 
away, never again regaining its lost power. 

Movement of Population ; New States. — During the 
last ten years of the closing century the people poured 
over the Alleghanies in ever increasing numbers. Ken- 
tucky had become a state in 1782 and Tennessee in 1796. 

At the close of the Revolution the great valley of the 
Ohio, with its roUing hills and fertile plains, was a wilder- 
ness untrodden, except by the red children of the forest. 
In 1788 Rufus Putnam, the *' Father of Ohio," crossed the 
mountains with forty families, settled at the mouth of the 
Muskingum and founded Marietta. A few years later, 
the Indians of the Northwest being troublesome, General 
Arthur St. Clair moved against them with eighteen hun- 
dred men and suffered a terrible defeat. The President 
then chose Anthony Wayne, the hero of Stony Point, to 
march against the Indians. In 1794 Wayne defeated them 

232 



WAR IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 233 

in the battle of Fallen Timbers, near the site of Maumee 
City. After this the territory filled rapidly and in 1803 
Ohio joined the sisterhood and became the seventeenth 
state. 

Administration of Jefferson 

Thomas Jefferson was a son of one of the great land- 
holders of Virginia, and by choice he became the leader of 
the democrats, the plain people. He had a wonderful 
power in winning men and he never betrayed their confi- 
dence. For secretary of state he chose his most intimate 
friend, James Madison. Jefferson's aim was to make the 
government as simple as possible and to keep taxes low. 
To do this he abolished some offices- and joined two into 
one where the business would warrant it. He also led 
Congress to repeal several tax laws that had been enacted 
by the Federalists. He reduced the size of the regular 
army and sold some of the vessels of the navy. 

War in the Mediterranean. — Jefferson was so opposed to 
war that he would probably have sold all the vessels in the 
navy had not a new use for them arisen. The Barbary states 
of North Africa had been long in the habit of exacting 
tribute from the European countries, and they began this 
also with America. In 1801, Tripoli, to exact a larger trib- 
ute, declared war on the United States. The challenge was 
accepted and the President sent a small fleet of four ves- 
sels to the Mediterranean. The Barbary powers were 
soon overawed, and they gave no more trouble for some 
years. 

Purchase of Louisiana. — The greatest achievement in 
the administration of Jefferson was the purchase of the 
vast region west of the Mississippi, known as Louisiana. 
This region had been explored by La Salle in 1682. It 



234 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



was then owned by France till 1762 when it was ceded to 
Spain. But in 1800, after Napoleon Bonaparte had risen 
to power, the territory was again ceded to France. 

Our treaty with Spain in 1795 had opened the mouth of 
the Mississippi to American shipping. This right of 
carrying their goods down the Mississippi was deemed 

necessary to the 
Americans living 
along the river, as 
there were no rail- 
roads across the 
mountains to the 
East. When it was 
learned that this 
privilege was about 
to be discontinued, 
and that Napoleon 
had come into pos- 
session of Louisiana, 
there was much un- 
easiness among the 
people of the great 
valley. 

President Jeffer- 
son then determined 
to purchase, if pos- 
sible, New Orleans territory, which included the mouth 
of the river. He sent James Monroe to Paris to join 
Robert R. Livingston, our minister, who was already there, 
to try to make the purchase. To their astonishment Napo- 
leon offered, through his agent, to sell all Louisiana. A 
bargain was soon made and all that vast region was se- 
cured for the sum of ^15,000,000. 




Thomas Jefferson 



LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 235 

The American people were astonished at the magnitude 
of the purchase. It more than doubled the territory of the 
United States and has since been carved into a dozen or 
more great and flourishing states. The purchase of Louis- 
iana is rightly pronounced the greatest diplomatic victory 
in the history of the United States. 

Lewis and Clark Expedition. — While in Washington's 
Cabinet, Jefferson proposed an exploring expedition to the 
Northwest, and after the purchase of Louisiana he deter- 
mined to carry out his project. Choosing Merriwether 
Lewis, one of his secretaries, and Captain Clark, he sent them 
on their long journey. With a company of about forty men 
they began the ascent of the Missouri. River in the spring 
of 1804. The journey was full of hardships, but they 
were repaid with much romantic scenery — snow-capped 
mountains, vast waving forests, and cascades of marvelous 
beauty. After a journey of a year and a half, they reached 
the Columbia River and floated with its current until they 
came in view of the Pacific Ocean — that vast watery plain 
on which Balboa had gazed with a swelling soul, through 
which Magellan had plowed with his hardy seamen until 
he had belted the globe. ^ Returning the next spring, they 
reached St. Louis in September 1807. They had traveled 
nine thousand miles in two and a half years, and through 
the journal they kept, much was learned of the great West. 

In 1806 Zebulon Pike made a tour of the middle West to 
the site of Denver, and thence southward to the head 
waters of the Rio Grande. 

The Federal Courts. — After the Federalists had been 
defeated at the polls and before they went out of office 
they created more than twenty new judgeships, and Presi- 
dent Adams filled them all with men of his own party. 

1 See Elson's History, p. 387. 



236 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

This was distasteful to the RepiibHcans, or Democrats,^ 
as they were now coming to be called, and Congress re- 
pealed the act, leaving the appointees without office. 

The Democrats also found fault with other of the Fed- 
eralist judges. Judge Pickering of New Hampshire was 
removed from office on a charge of drunkenness, and Jus- 
tice Samuel Chase of the Supreme Court was impeached 
by the House, but not convicted by the Senate. 

One appointment, however, of President Adams no one 
could ever find fault with — his appointment of John Mar- 
shall as chief justice of the Supreme Court. He was the 
ablest jurist in the history of our country. For thirty-five 
years he held this exalted position and we are indebted to 
him above all men for our present methods of interpreting 
the Constitution. 

Burr and Hamilton. — Aaron Burr was Vice President of 
the United States and Alexander Hamilton was the power- 
ful leader of the Federalist party. Both were lawyers of 
New York City. They were not friends and at length a 
quarrel arose between them, resulting in a duel and the 
death of Hamilton. 

The Democratic party had increased greatly since Jef- 
ferson's election ; but there were a few Federalists in New 
England who seemed to believe that the country was going 
to destruction because they themselves were not in power. 
These men formed a conspiracy to break up the Union, to 
sever New England from the other states and form an- 
other government. They wanted New York also and to 
secure it they approached Burr, a man of selfish ambition 
and of shallow patriotism. They offered to support him 

IJ shall henceforth use the term "Democratic" to designate the party 
founded by Jefferson, though he did' not give up the term " Republican " as 
long as he lived. 



BURR'S CONSPIRACY 



237 



for governor of New York if he would aid them. He 
agreed, but was defeated because of Hamilton's influence, 
which was thrown against him. This angered Burr and 
he challenged Hamilton to a duel and killed him. 

Hamilton was one of the greatest statesmen in our his- 
tory, able, honest, patriotic. When the people knew of his 
death, there was an outburst of wrath against his slayer. 
Burr fled the city to 
escape popular indigna- 
tion. 

Burros Conspiracy. — 
The next year (1805) 
Burr made a tour of the 
Mississij^i Valley and 
began to build boats and 
collect an army, for the 
purpose, as he said, of 
making an expedition 
against the Spaniards in 
Mexico. But most peo- 
ple believed that his 
purpose was to sever 
the Union, to set up an 
independent nation in 

the Mississippi Valley with himself at its head. In his 
conspiracy he had the aid of James Wilkinson, commander 
of the army in the West, of Blennerhassett, the proprietor 
of an island called by his name in the Ohio River near 
Marietta, and of many others. 

At length the bubble burst. Burr was arrested ; he was 
tried for treason at Richmond, Virginia, under Chief Jus- 
tice Marshall. As treason could not be proved against him, 
he was acquitted. But the people never forgave him. His 




Alexander Hamilton 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



reputation was utterly blasted, and many years later he 
sank into the grave lonely and despised. 

Fulton and the Steamboat. — Robert Fulton was the 
inventor of the first successful steamboat, though he was 
not the originator of the idea of steam navigation. In 1786 
James Rumsey experimented on the Potomac with a steam- 
boat, and the same year John Fitch, a greater genius than 

Rumsey or Fulton, made 
similar experiments on 
the Delaware. But 
neither Rumsey nor 
Fitch awakened the in- 
terest of the great pub- 
lic, as Fulton succeeded 
in doing twenty years 
later. 

Fulton's first success- 
ful steamboat was the 
Clermont, which made a 
successful trial trip on 
the Hudson in August, 
1807. The boat was 
described as a "monster, 
defying wind and tide, 
breathing flame and 
smoke." The boat ran 
from New York City to 
Albany in thirty-two hours, and from this time steam navi- 
gation made rapid progress until it revolutionized the world 
of trade and travel. 

More Trouble with England. — Thomas Jefferson was 
reelected President by a great majority, the FederaHst 
candidate, Charles C. Pinckney, receiving but fourteen 




Robert Fulton 



WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 



239 



votes. George Clinton of New York became Vice Presi- 
dent. Jefferson had won over many of his former oppo- 
nents and greatly strengthened his party, but the trying 
time of his life was still before him. 

France and England were again at war, and France not 
being permitted to trade with her own colonies, again threw 
the West India trade open to America. In a short time 
American merchants were enjoying a most flourishing 
trade with the French West Indies, when Great Britain 
determined that this trade should be stopped. She seized 





1 

11 


lllluittiti 


- - . —^'- 


J 


> Y -.""■HHFifq^^pBmHi -•'",*■ 




H&f^mrr,. 


"■'■ • 


"- .■ ■ _.:;j 



The "Clermont" on the Hudson 



hundreds of our vessels, and, in addition, revived the prac- 
tice of impressing our seamen. This led to a serious 
encounter between two vessels. 

The Leopard and the Chesapeake. — In 1807 the British 
ship, the Leopard, while searching for three British 
deserters, fired on the C/iesapeake, off Hampton Roads, 
Virginia. For some hours the fire was kept up, three men 
being killed and several wounded, when the commander of 
the Chesapeake, not being prepared to return the fire, raised 
the white flag and surrendered. Four men, three of them 



240 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

being American citizens, were seized and impressed into 
the British service. This outrage raised the ire of the 
American people as nothing had done for many years, and 
it came near bringing war. 

English Orders and French Decrees. — In addition to the 
impressment of seamen America was greatly annoyed at 
this time by certain Enghsh Orders in Council, and by 
decrees issued by Napoleon Bonaparte, the French em- 
peror. 

A tremendous war was raging between France and 
England. Each tried to draw the United States into war 
against the other. Failing in this, they both showed a 
contempt for American rights and came near driving our 
commerce from the seas. 

In November, 1806, Napoleon issued from Berlin, Ger- 
many, a decree, declaring England in a state of blockade 
and declaring that no ship which touched at an English 
port should be admitted to a French port. This decree 
was answered by the EngUsh Orders in Council in the fol- 
lowing January, closing to neutral ships all ports under 
French control.^ 

A few months later a still more humiliating Enghsh order 
declared that any neutral vessel trading at a port from 
which British ships were excluded must first stop at an 
English port and pay a duty, and this must be repeated on 
the return voyage. Napoleon answered this by issuing 
his Milan Decree, namely, that any neutral vessel, having 
paid a duty at an Enghsh port, might be seized as a prize 
in any French port. 

What could the Americans do ? If they ignored these 
orders and decrees, their commerce would be swept from 
the sea. There were two ways left. i. To make war on 

1 " Neutral " meant American, as nearly all Europe was at war. 



JEFFERSON'S EMBARGO 241 

both France and England ; but this would have been dan- 
gerous to the life of the youthful Republic. 2. To lay an 
embargo on American shipping and refuse to trade with 
both nations. This would ruin thousands of American 
merchants and traders and throw great numbers of seamen 
out of employment. Jefferson loved peace far better than 
war. Moreover, he believed that France and England would 
be willing to grant our rights and to treat us with respect 
rather than lose our trade. He therefore decided to try 
the embargo. 

Jefferson's Embargo. — In December, 1807, Congress, at 
the request of the President, passed an act prohibiting for- 
eign commerce. At first the people approved it, but as 
the months passed it became a heavy burden. Great 
stacks of wheat, corn, cotton, and tobacco lay along the 
wharfs of the seaports while the ships lay rotting in the 
harbors. Jefferson's great popularity began to wane. 
The people, especially in New England, denounced him 
unsparingly. 

The effect of the embargo on France was slight. It 
gave Napoleon an excuse for seizing any American vessels 
that evaded the law and sailed to European waters. The 
effect in England was more marked, but the result was not 
what Jefferson had expected. The Embargo Act was re- 
pealed a few days before Jefferson went out of office. On 
the whole it must be pronounced a failure ; but it did some 
good : it taught the people not to rely on such measures 
in the future. It also caused many of the people to 
turn to manufacturing, and from this small beginning our 
country has grown to be one of the great manufacturing 
nations of the world. 

Retirement of Jefferson. — The great popularity of Jef- 
ferson had waned on account of the embargo ; but within 



242 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

a few years after he retired from office it rose to its nor- 
mal state, and to the end of his hfe he was the adviser of 
his party. The fierce contest between him and Hamilton 
resulted, it may be said, in a victory for both ; that is, a sort 
of compromise. In our great government of to-day we 
have a strong national Union, such as Hamilton stood for. 




MONTICEIXO 



We have also personal liberty, the rule of the democracy, 
as advocated by Jefferson. 

Jefferson, on leaving Washington, retired to his home in 
Virginia, and never afterward left the state. ^ He and John 
Adams had been friendly rivals. They were estranged for 
some years after Jefferson's retirement, but again they 
became friends, and corresponded with each other to the 
end of their lives, both dying on the same day, — the 

^ His mansion, named Monticello, is near Charlottesville. 



THE FEDERALIST PARTY 243 

national holiday, 1826, precisely fifty years after the passing 
of the Declaration of Independence. 

SUMMARY 

The Federalist Party did a noble work in laying the foundations 
of a strong central government. On this foundation the Republican 
or Democratic party reared the structure of democracy or local self- 
government. 

President Jefferson cut down the expenses of the government where- 
ever possible, but he gradually adopted the best principles of the 
Federalist party and came to favor a strong central government. 

In 1803 he purchased Louisiana for $15,000,000 of Napoleon, who 
had received the territory from Spain in 1800. This was the greatest 
diplomatic achievement in our history. Soon after the purchase the 
Lewis and Clark exploring expedition to the Northwest was made. 

Burr and Hamilton. — Vice President Aaron Burr quarreled with 
Alexander Hamilton and killed him in a duel. Burr afterward went 
to the Mississippi Valley, where his movements indicated treason. He 
was arrested, tried, and acquitted (1807). 

Robert Fulton made the first successful steamboat trial on the Hudson 
River in 1807. 

Trouble with England and France. — A long war between the French 
and English brought great annoyance to the United States. The 
English seized many of our vessels that traded with the French West 
Indies and impressed seamen from American ships. English Orders 
in Council w^ere issued that were very humiliating to the United States. 
Napoleon meantime issued his Berlin and Milan Decrees, quite as 
humiliating as the English Orders. Jefferson then led Congress to 
pass the Embargo Act (December, 1807). This was in force about 
fifteen months, but did not have the desired effect on France and 
England. 

NOTES 

Theodosia Burr. — There was one pathetic vein that ran like a scarlet thread 
through the strange career of Aaron Burr — his relations to his daughter. His 
wife had died young and had left him this beautiful child, Theodosia, who reigned 
over his home like a princess and grew into a queenly woman. Her mental 
endowments were unusual. She believed her father the most perfect of men, and 
never seenied to doubt the honesty and sincerity of his motives. At Richmond she 



244 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

followed the trial with the keenness of a trained lawyer, and won the admiration of 
every one that came within her influence. When all others execrated her father as 
a villain, she clung to him with the greater devotion. While he was in Europe, she 
wrote : " I witness your extraordinary fortitude with new wonder at every new mis- 
fortune. . . . My vanity would be greater if I had not been placed so near you, 
and yet my pride is our relationship." On Burr's return to America, Theodosia 
left her southern home to fly to his arms. She was in mourning for her only child, 
a bright and promising boy, who had recently died and, like Rachel, she refused to 
be comforted. She embarked on the sea at Charleston, and her father watched 
and longed with painful anxiety for the coming of his one remaining friend, whose 
faith in him had never faltered. But he waited in vain. The ship was lost iipon 
the ocean, and not a life was saved. When Burr realized that his faithful daughter 
had found a grave at the bottom of the sea, and his own utter loneliness, his grief 
was almost unbearable ; yet he suppressed it with wonderful self-control. He lived 
beyond his fourscore years, dying in 1836, and was buried with his fathers at 
Princeton, New Jersey. His father, the Rev. Aaron Burr, had been president of 
Princeton College, and his mother was a daughter of the great Puritan divine, 
Jonathan Edwards. 

Impressment of Seamen. — The insolent methods often employed by English 
shipmasters in searching American vessels, and their indiscriminate recklessness, 
which resulted in their seizing many who were not British subjects, were exasperat- 
ing in the extreme, and cannot be condoned. But it is a mistake to believe that 
the British government maintained the right of impressing seamen simply to annoy 
the United States. This is far from the truth. In fact, impressment was almost a 
necessity to England at this time. She was engaged in a life-and-death struggle 
with Napoleon. Her sailors deserted in large numbers and engaged with American 
ships because of better pay and easier service. At one time, complains the English 
minister, twelve of his Majesty's ships lay at Norfolk, Virginia, unable to move, 
owing to desertions. Many English sailors, on reaching an American port, would 
purchase forged papers of American citizenship for a dollar or two, or secure them 
by perjury before a magistrate. Nevertheless England was much more to blame 
than America because of her persistent refusal to agree to an exchange of deserters 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE WAR OF 1812 

Administration of Madison, 1809-18 17 

Many of Jefferson's friends urged him to become a can- 
didate for a third term, but he refused, and his secretary 
of state, James Madison, was elected to the great office, 
George CHnton being again elected Vice President. 

Madison, like Washington and Jefferson, was a Virginian. 
He was " a quiet, neat little man, full of good humor and 
anecdote." He had helped to frame the Constitution, had 
served in Congress while Washington was President, and 
was secretary of state during the entire administration of 
Jefferson. He chose Albert Gallatin, one of the greatest 
financiers in our history, as secretary of the treasury ; in 
181 1 James Monroe became secretary of state. 

Strained Relations with France and England. — The 
embargo of Jefferson was followed by an act of non-inter- 
course with France and England. In 18 10, the English 
minister declared that his government would repeal the 
Orders in Council, if the non-intercourse with England 
were removed. Madison removed it by proclamation, and 
the people rejoiced. But the Orders in Council were not 
repealed, and the minister who had promised repeal was 
recalled as having exceeded his instructions. Non-inter- 
course with Great Britain was then revived. 

Our Relations with France were no better than with Eng- 
land. In 1 8 10 Congress removed the non-intercourse 

245 



246 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



restriction, but declared that if either country continued 
hostile to our trade, intercourse with that country should 
again be shut off. The wily Napoleon, having heard of 
this act, pretended that he would revoke his decrees against 
American shipping. This was only a trick by which to 
entic'e our vessels to French ports. Many American 
ships were caught in this trap, and were seized and sold to 

enrich Napoleon's 
treasury. So out- 
rageous was the 
treatment of Amer- 
ica by both these 
countries that, as a 
self-respecting na- 
tion, there was 
nothing to do but 
take up arms in de- 
fence of our rights. 
Tippecanoe. — 
While our foreign 
relations were thus 
strained, public at- 
tention was called 
to Indian troubles 
in the Northwest. 
For -more than ten 




James Madison 



years after Wayne defeated the Indians of Ohio, in 1794, 
they had given little trouble. But a great leader had now 
arisen among them in the person of Tecumseh, a Shawnee 
chief. William Henry Harrison, a future President, was 
governor of Indian 7'erritory. In 1809 he made a treaty 
with the Indians by which he secured three million acres in 
northern Indiana. Tecumseh and his brother, a medicine 



DRIFTING TOWARD WAR 



247 



man known as the Prophet, declared that the treaty was 
void and began to prepare to fight the Americans. 

In the autumn of 181 1 General Harrison met the Indians 
near the town of Tippecanoe on the Wabash River. After 
a fierce battle of two hours the Indians broke and fled, and 
the Americans burned their town. This battle was not a 
part of the war with England that was soon to follow. 

Drifting toward War. — Two events in 181 1 pointed 
toward war. i. The American minister at London took 
unfriendly leave, withdrawing 
from the country because the 
British refused to repeal the 
Orders in Council. 2. The 
American ship, the President, 
had a duel at sea with the 
English Little Belt, disabling 
and capturing her. The 
American people considered- 
this an avenging of the out- 
rage on the Chesapeake by the 
Leopard four years before. 

Still the Orders in Council 
were not repealed and the impressment business went on. 
The war spirit now rose rapidly in America. In Congress 
there were strong young leaders, the chief of whom was 
Henry Clay of Kentucky, and John C. Calhoun of South 
Carolina, who determined that no longer should America 
suffer the indignities that it had suffered for twenty 
years. 

President Madison was devoted to peace ; he hesitated, 
but at length came to favor a declaration of war. When 
the British saw that the Americans were in earnest, they 
hastened to repeal the Orders in Council ; but it was too 




General Dearborn 



248 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

late. On June 18, 18 12, war was declared against Great 
Britain. 

War in the Lake Region. — A large number of the old 
Federalists, especially in New England, were opposed to 
the war and so continued to the end. But the majority of 
the people were eager to defend the country's rights and 




several armies were soon organized. Henry Dearborn of 
Massachusetts was made commander in chief. 

The war opened in the lake region and the first event — 
the surrender of Michigan without a battle — has been 
pronounced the most disgraceful event in American history. 
William Hull was governor of Michigan with headquarters 
at Detroit; The British in Canada were commanded by a 
strong leader, General Isaac Brock. When Brock led an 



WAR ON THE SEA 



249 



army against Detroit in August and demanded a surrender, 
Hull's courage forsook him ; he raised the white flag, and 
all Michigan passed into the hands of the British. 

Brock hastened back to Niagara with his prisoners, and 
two months later he was stationed on Queenstown Heights, 
on the Canadian side of the river. Here he was attacked 
by an American army commanded by Stephen Van Rensse- 
laer. The British won a victory, driving the Americans 




Ba'J"!'!.!-. i;i-: i w i.kn 



( .1 r.KixllvKI'. AMI 



( ( ) \ ,s I I I 



to the river brink and capturing several hundred. But it 
was a dear \'ictory, for their brave commander, General 
Brock, had fallen dead with a bullet in his breast. 

War on the Sea. — Our victories on the sea during this 
fateful year of 18 12 were in striking contrast with the con- 
tinued failures in the lake region. Our navy was a pygmy 
compared with the powerful navy of England, and great 
was the astonishment when our ships won victory after 
victory on the sea. The most famous of these naval duels 



250 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UiNITED STATES 



was that between the Constitution, an American frigate of 
forty-four guns, and the Gucrriere, a British frigate of 
thirty-eight guns. The Constitution was commanded by 
Captain Isaac Hull, a nephew of the unhappy governor of 

Michigan, and the 

fight took place but 
three days after the 
surrender of Michigan. 
The English cap- 
tain had boasted that 
he could defeat any 
American ship that 
dared engage with 
him. The two ships 
met on the Atlantic 
eight hundred miles 
east of Boston, and 
there on the rolling 
deep they engaged in 
their death duel. For 
half an hour they 
poured forth their 
deadly broadsides when the Guerricre, totally disabled, 
struck her colors and surrendered. Seventy-nine of the 
English and fourteen Americans were killed. Captain 
Hull burned the ruined battleship and took his prisoners to 
Boston, and the people rejoiced from one end of the land 
to the other. 

There were many other American victories on the sea 
within the first year of the war. In October, 1812, the 
Wasp, an American sloop, captured the Frolic, after a 
bloody battle five hundred miles off the coast of North 
Carolina. Within the same month the United States, one 




Isaac Hull 



WAR ON THE SEA 



25 



of our finest frigates, captured the Macedonian, and in 
December the Constitiitioii, now called " Old Ironsides,' 
added another to her famous victories. In a desperate 
fight off the coast of Brazil she destroyed \.\\^ Java, the 
British loss in killed and wounded being nine times greater 
than the American. These unexpected American victories 
created a tremendous sensation in England and opened the 
eyes of the world to the rising young Republic. 

The year 181 3, however, brought some serious reverses, 
the most notable of which was the capture of the Chesa- 
peake by the SJiannoii. The 

brave young commander of the 
CJiesapeake, Captain Lawrence, 
received a mortal wound. While 
being carried below he cried, 
" Don't -give up the ship," and 
this became a rallying cry to his 
countrymen. 

One of the most famous of the 
sea fights was that of the Essex 
against two English vessels in 
the harbor of Valparaiso, South 
America. The Essex made a 
brave fight, but the odds were too great and she surrendered 
after three fourths of her crew were killed or wounded. 
Among the captured crew was a boy of thirteen years who, 
in a far greater war, was to become the leading naval hero 
— David G. Farragut. 

Not only the vessels of the navy, out also the privateers 
did most effective work on the sea. Many hundred Eng- 
lish merchant ships were captured by these bold, insatiable 
rovers of the sea, the American privateers. The British 
also captured many American ships. 




James Lawrence 



252 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Again among the Lakes. — The second year in the lake 
region was more favorable to the Americans than the first. 
Their intention from the beginning was to invade Canada. 
In this they made no progress the first year, but in April, 
1813, General Zebulon Pike, the explorer, captured Toronto 
(then called York). An expedition against Montreal was 
then planned and General James Wilkinson, who had suc- 
ceeded Dearborn as chief commander, became its leader. 
But after suffering a defeat at Chrystler's Field, within a 
hundred miles of Montreal, he returned. 

The most famous victory in the lake region was the 
defeat of the English fleet on Lake Erie by Oliver Hazard 
Perry. After building a fleet of ten 
vessels at Erie, Perry crossed the bar 
(August, 18 1 3) and offered battle to 
the English fleet, commanded by Com- 
modore Barclay and of about the same 
size as Perry's fleet. Barclay fled and 
it took Perry a month to find him. He 
did so at Put-in Bay on September 10, 
about sunrise, and before sunset the 
British were without ships or sailors 
on Lake Erie. The battle was short 
and furious. It resulted in the destruc- 
tion or capture of every English ship. 
*' We have met the enemy and they are ours," was the 
laconic dispatch sent by Perry to General Harrison. 

Harrison in the Northwest ; The Thames. — General 
W^illiam Henry Harrison had collected a forceful army in 
northern Ohio. Through Perry's victory Lake Erie was 
now in the control of the Americans and Harrison deter- 
mined to restore Michigan. After fighting several battles 
with a British army in northern Ohio he moved toward 




Oliver Hazard Perry 



HARRISON IN THE NORTHWEST 253 

Detroit. The British fled, and Michigan, which had been 
lost without a battle, was recovered without a battle. The 
British army, under General Proctor and the great Indian 
chief, Tecumseh, continued to flee, with Harrison in hot 
pursuit, until they reached a point on the Thames River, 
where they turned to give battle. The result was a decisive 
victory for the Americans, almost the entire British army 
being killed, wounded, or captured. Among the slain was 
the powerful Indian warrior, Tecumseh. 

The winter passed with little activity. In July of the 
next year (18 14) two heavy battles were fought near 
Niagara Falls. The first was at Chippewa, where General 
Winfield Scott defeated a British army in one hour of hard 
fighting. The second was the night battle at Lundy's 
Lane within hearing of the roar of Niagara. General 
Jacob Brown was the American commander. The battle 
began about sunset on July 25 and raged till midnight, 
each army directing its fire by the flash of tl;ie enemy's 
guns. Each army lost nearly nine hundred men, about 
one third of its force. Neither side won. The American 
army then settled at Fort Erie near by, and three weeks 
later the English made a desperate attack on the fort, 
losing nearly a thousand men, while the Americans lost 
less than a hundred. 

The British had overrun a large part of Maine and they 
determined to gain possession of northern New York. 
General Prevost led a large army down from Canada to 
Lake Champlain on which there was a British fleet ; but 
in a decisive battle on the lake this fleet was captured 
(September 11, 1814) and Prevost hastened back to the 
valley of the St. Lawrence. The English attempt to invade 
New York, like the American attempt to invade Canada, 
had ended in failure. 



254 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



The Washington Campaign. — Our little navy had clone 
wonders on the sea in the early part of the war ; but no 
one expected it to hold out long against the British navy. 
Before the end of the war our ships had nearly all been 
captured or shut up in the ports by the English blockade. 
In August, 1 8 14, a British fleet bore an army under 

^^^^^^_^ General Robert Ross, to 
WAstiiNTcrroN 11 the waters of the Chesa- 

AND VICINITY, _ J 

peake. They landed and 
marched upon Washing- 
ton. The Americans 
made a feeble resistance, 
but were soon put to 
flight and the city was 
captured. The English 
then wantonly burned 
the capitol, and other 
public buildings, after 
which they hastily with- 
drew and sailed for Bal- 
timore. This attack 
ended in failure. The 
militia had swarmed into 
Baltimore by thousands 
to defend the city. 
General Ross had declared that he ** didn't care if it rained 
militia " and boasted that he would eat his Christmas din- 
ner in l^altimore. But in the final reckoning Ross was 
among thj slain with a bullet in his breast fired by one of 
the despised militia. While the British fleet was bom- 
barding Fort McHenry near Baltimore, Francis Scott Key 
was inspired to write the national hymn, " The Star 
Spangled Banner." 




WAR IN THE SOUTH 



255 



War in the South. — In the autumn of 1814, Great 
Britain sent a large fleet with an army to the Gulf of 
Mexico. The commander was Sir Edward Pakenham, a 
brother-in-law of the Duke of Wellington. As the army 
landed near the mouth of the Mississippi and advanced 
toward New Orleans the people of the city were in a wild 
state of excitement, as they had no leader to defend them. 
At length the news spread that Jackson had come. 



/Sl^ « Jacksm's H. 




^^MiN^ffffliS 



itiah Butteries British Batteries 

BATTLE OF NEAV ORLEANS 



_^.™m.,;:j--t:....^vrr. 



For some months General Andrew Jackson ^ had been 
fighting the Creek Indians of the South. The year before 
the dreadful massacre of Fort Minns had taken place in 
Alabama, nearly five hundred whites having been killed. 
To avenge this outrage and to secure safety for the future, 
Jackson had marched with an army into the Indian coun- 
try and had promptly defeated thn red men. Hearing 
then of the arrival of the PZnglish he went to New Orleans, 
riding through the wilderness for three weeks on horse- 
back. 

^ See Boyhood of Jackson, p. 285. 



256 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

He soon had three thousand men under arms and an 
embankment was thrown up eight miles below the city. 
Here the British made an attack on the 8th of January, 
181 5, and the famous battle of New Orleans was fought. 
The British assaulted with great bravery, but the Ameri- 
cans, well protected behind earthworks, suffered but little 




[The Battle of New Orleans 



while pouring a deadly fire into the advancing foe. The 
result was a fearful defeat of the English. They lost two 
thousand men that day, including General Pakenham. 
The American loss was but thirteen, six killed and seven 
wounded. The English then sailed to Mobile and were 
seen no more on the shores of Louisiana. 

The Coming of Peace. — Two weeks before the battle of 
New Orleans a treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, 
Belgium ; but as there was no Atlantic cable the news of 



THE HARTFORD CONVENTION 257 

peace could not reach America in time to prevent the 
battle. The terms of the treaty settled little. Bounda- 
ries were left as before the war. The British refused 
to put the impressment question into the treaty ; but they 
never again attempted to impress our seamen. The news 
of the treaty and of Jackson's victory reached the eastern 
states about the same time, and the rejoicing among the 
people was loud and long. 

The Hartford Convention. — The dying Federalist party 
had opposed the war to the last. They called a conven- 
tion to meet at Hartford, Connecticut, in December, 18 14. 
This convention sat with closed doors for three weeks. 
What its debates were is not known, but its report^ 
showed that the members were not very patriotic, that 
they opposed the policy of the administration, and con- 
sidered the subject of leading the New England states to 
secede from the Union. But the whole proceedings came 
to naught and were made ridiculous by the news of peace. 

Results of the War. — The War of 181 2, often called 
the Second War for Independence, or the War for Com- 
mercial Independence, was fought between two peoples 
who should always be friends, as they stand for the same 
thing — for the development of modern civilization and 
human liberty. On the part of Great Britain the war was 
a costly blunder. With a few slight concessions she might 
have conciliated the United States and made us an ally 
against Napoleon ; but she suffered the contention to come 
to war, and, with all her expense in men and treasure, 
she did not win a friend nor establish a principle, nor 
acquire a foot of land. 

On the other hand, though the war cost the United 
States thirty thousand lives and a ^100,000,000, it brought 

1 For a statement of this report, see Elson's History, p. 446. 



25< 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



great advantage to our country. It brought commercial 
independence, and never since then have the European 
Powers treated us with contempt. Before that war the 
United States was never considered a first-class Power; 
since then it has never been considered anything else . 

In our home relations our success was equally marked. 
The long disturbance of foreign trade did much to estab- 
lish American manufactories on an enduring basis, and 
they have grown greatly from that day. The war also 
played its part in bringing about a feeHng of national 
pride that was unknown before. Soon after this war had 
closed began that wonderful era of prosperity that has 
swept down through the century Uke a tidal wave, and 
which has no parallel in the history of civilization. 

SUMMARY 

James Madison became President on March 4, 1809, and served two 
terms. He was a wise and able statesman, but not well fitted to manage 
a war. Both England and France continued their outrages on our 
commerce. In 181 1 two events, the withdrawal of our minister from 
London and the duel between the President and the Little Belt, showed 
the bad feeHng between this country and England. 

War was declared with England on June 18, 1812. Hostilities began 
on the lakes. In August William Hull surrendered Michigan to General 
Brock. In October the British won the battle of Queenstown Heights, 
where Brock was killed. 

On the sea the American victories astonished every one. The most 
important naval duel was that between the Constitution and the 
Guerriere, the latter being captured and destroyed. The privateers 
played havoc with the English merchant marine. 

In the lake region the most famous fight was that on Lake Erie, in 
which Perry captured the entire British fleet. Soon after this General 
Harrison recovered Michigan and defeated the enemy at the Thames. 
Chippewa and Lundy's Lane were fought in July, 1814, near the Niagara, 
and a later attempt of the English to invade New York resulted in their 
defeat and withdrawal. 



SUMMARY 259 

In August, 1814, General Ross captured and burned Washington, 
but was repulsed before Baltimore. 

War in the South. — A large British army under Sir Edward Paken- 
ham reached the Gulf of Mexico late in 18 14. Jackson defeated him 
near New Orleans on January 8, 18 15. 

The Treaty of Peace, signed December 24, 1814, was conspicuous for 
what it left out. 

Great Britain gained no advantage by the war. America gained 
commercial independence, triumphed over disaffected elements at home, 
and established manufacturing on a firm basis. 



CHAPTER XV 
OPENING OF A NEW ERA 

The War of 1812, as we have noticed, brought inde- 
pendence from European dictation concerning our for- 
eign commerce. It also cemented the country as nothing 
before had done ; it weakened state pride and strengthened 
national pride ; it played its part in infusing into the pub- 
lic mind the dream of continental dominion and national 
greatness. 

The finances of the country had been mismanaged and 
were in a distressing condition at the close of the war, 
and some relief was secured by chartering another United 
States Bank(i8i6). This bank was very like the one that 
Hamilton had founded in 1791, the charter of which had 
expired in 181 1. It became the repository of the govern- 
ment moneys and had the power to issue paper money, 
which was received for taxes and all debts. It afterward 
became the object of great contention, as we shall notice 
when we reach Jackson's administration. 

One effect of the closing of the war was the importing 
of English manufactured goods. The embargo and the 
war had kept these out for some years, but now they came 
in great quantities, and were sold at such low prices as to 
cause an outcry from our own manufacturers. The result 
was the enacting of a new tariff law in 18 16, for the pro- 
tection of American manufacturing. 

260 



FLORIDA AND THE SEMINOLE WAR 



261 



Administration of James Monroe, 181 7-1825 

James Madison, after a long service in public life, the 
last eight years of which he was President, retired to his 
home in Virginia to spend his remaining days in peace 
and quiet. James Monroe, also a Virginian, became his 
successor. The 
Federalist party 
had almost dis- 
appeared. It cast 
but thirty-four 
electoral votes 
(for Rufus King) 
in 1816, after 
which it was heard 
no more in na- 
tional elections. 

Monroe was 
not a great Presi- 
dent, but he was 
honest and faith- 
ful and so gener- 
ally popular that 
his administration 
was called the 
"Era of good 

feeling." At the end of four years Monroe was reelected 
with no candidate opposing him. 

Florida and the Seminole War. — Spain still owned 
Florida and for years there was irritation along our south- 
ern frontier, chiefly through Indian raids from Spanish 
Florida. In 18 18 General Andrew Jackson was sent 
against the Indians with a body of troops and he was not 




Jamks Monroe 



262 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STASES 

long in destroying the Indian power. The following year 
Spain sold Florida to the United States for the sum of 
$5,000,000. At that time the boundary between the 
Spanish possessions on the Pacific and the Louisiana 
Purchase was fixed and the line between the Spanish pos- 
sessions and the Oregon country was placed at the 42d 
■parallel. The year before this (1818) the line between 
British America and the United States was fixed at forty- 
nine degrees, from the Lake of the Woods to the crest of 
the Rocky Mountains, where began the Oregon country. 

The Missouri Compromise ; Slavery. — The great con- 
test in American politics over a strong or weak government 
(Union or Liberty, Nationality or Democracy) was fairly 
well settled by 1820, and about this time arose another 
most serious question, which disturbed the country for 
forty years and had to be settled at last by an appeal to 
the sword. This was the slavery question. 

The history of slavery in the United States dates back 
to the coming of the Dutch vessel to Jamestown in 1619. 
As the colonies were founded slavery spread to them all 
and it took a far stronger hold on the South than on the 
North. England was responsible for slavery in the colonies. 
When the colonies attempted to restrict the slave trade, 
as several of them did, the attempt was always crushed by 
the crown. After the Revolution, the northern states 
gradually emancipated, but in the South, where the institu- 
tion paid better, it grew stronger. Especially was this 
true after the invention of the cotton gin. When the 
Louisiana Purchase was added to the public domain, the 
question soon arose, Slavery or no slavery in the great 
West .? 

Missouri was the first of the trans-Mississippi territories 
to apply for statehood, and when it did so, this question 



THE MONROE DOCTRINE 263 

came up for settlement. The slaveholders had stolen a 
march by settling in Missouri with their slaves and when a 
state constitution was framed, it provided for slavery. A 
great many of the people, especially those of the North, 
believed that slavery was an evil and should not be ex- 
tended. When the subject of admitting Missouri came up, 
therefore, February, 1819, the House voted that it become a 
free state. But the Senate refused to agree to this and the 
matter was left over to the next Congress. 

On the meeting of the next Congress, there was again a 
deadlock between House and Senate and the people of the 
country were deeply stirred. At length the two houses 
reached a compromise. It was decided that Missouri be 
admitted as a slave state, but in all the rest of the Louisi- 
ana Purchase slavery should not exist north of thirty-six 
degrees and thirty minutes north latitude. This was the 
famous compromise line, and it became to the West what 
Mason and Dixon's line was in the East. The act was 
signed by the President in MarcVi, 1820.^ 

The Monroe Doctrine. — In his message to Congress on 
December 2, 1823, President Monroe gave expression to a 
policy of the country that came to be known as the 
*' Monroe Doctrine." 

The grounds for putting forth this doctrine were two- 
fold — (i) the encroachments of Russia on the Pacific 
coast, and (2) the struggle of the South American states for 
their freedom. 

Russia, which owned Alaska, was extending her influ- 
ence down the coast, and the Americans feared that she 
might get possession of the California country and thus 
become a menace to the United States. In Mexico and 

1 Missouri, however, did not enter the Union till the following year, owing 
to her attitude on the admission of free blacks. 



264 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

South America the people had rebelled against Spain, had 
set up republics, and practically won their independence. 
Spain then appealed to other European nations (the same 
that had formed the " Holy Alliance " a few years before) 
for help in putting down her rebeUious colonies. 
Monroe then issued his message : — 

1. That the American continents are no longer open to 
European colonization. 

2. That any effort to oppress or control the countries 
south of us by any European power would be considered 
as showing an unfriendly disposition toward the United 
States. 

The message had an immediate effect. Russia agreed 
not to come south of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes 
on the Pacific coast, and the Holy Allies gave up all 
intention of aiding Spain. 

The Monroe Doctrine, which has become a fixed policy 
of our country, has two objects: first, to guard us against 
encroachments that might threaten our peace and safety, 
and second, to protect and encourage republican, as against 
monarchial, government. 

Western Movement of the People 

We have noticed the settlement and admission into the 
Union of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio, before the sec- 
ond war with England. Soon after the war the stream 
of movers from the East to the great valleys of the Ohio 
and the Mississippi swelled to vast proportions. The chief 
attraction was the great fertility of soil, with the splen- 
did growth of timber and the abundant waterways. The 
population of Ohio rose from 45,000 in 1800 to 580,000 in 
1820, and the increase was scarcely less astonishing in 



MEANS OF WESTWARD TRAVEL 265 

Kentucky and Tennessee, and in the wilderness west of 
Ohio and south of Tennessee. 

Means of Westward Travel. — The vehicle most used was 
the light moving wagon made of wood and with an arched 
canvas top. There were several fairly good roads from 
the East. One extended from Albany through the Mo- 
hawk Valley and on westward by way of Buffalo. A road 
led from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, and another from 
Washington to Wheeling by way of Cumberland, with a 
branch deflecting southward into Tennessee, and still others 
from Georgia and the Carolinas into Alabama and Mis- 
sissippi. 

A farmer wishing to better his condition would pack the 
goods that he could take with him in a strong, light wagon, 




''*^- 






E M R; R A N T W A G( ) N S 

leaving only room for himself and his family. Thus 
equipped they would bid adieu to friends and kindred, 
often to meet them no more, and start out on the long 
journey. Slowly they lumbered over hills and mountains 
and across streams and swamps, encamping at night, 
cooking their meals with utensils which they carried with 
them. So great was the migration that sometimes hun- 
dreds passed a given point in a single day. Many of the 
movers, on reaching a tributary of the Ohio or Mississippi, 
would float down the current on a raft or flatboat, carrying 
their horses, wagons, and goods with them. On reaching 
their destination, a quarter section or more of land would 
be purchased of the government, or of some settler who 



266 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

had failed, for two or three dollars an acre, on the install- 
ment plan and the family would settle in their home in the 
wilderness and begin life anew. 

The Old Settler. — With all its hardships pioneer life in 
the forest had its attractions and picturesque features. If 
the land secured by the early settler were wholly unim- 
proved, the family would live in the moving wagon until a 
cabin could be built. The cabin was made of logs, notched 
at the ends so as to fit at the corners, and laid one above 
another until the house was about ten feet high. There 
was but one room, one door, and one window. The door 
was made of rough boards swung on leather hinges, and 
opposite the door was left an open space on the ground 
for a fire place, the chimney being built outside of flat 
sticks like laths, and plastered with mortar. The floor was 
made of planks hewn out with the ax, and the roof of 
lighter planks resting on rafters made of saplings. In such 
a home many a good family lived for ten or twenty years, 
the ancestors of many of the leading men of the nation 
to-day. The cabin built, the pioneer would begin battling 
with the forest, clearing a few acres each year, carrying his 
grain perhaps twenty miles on horseback to the nearest 
mill. Soon his land would become more productive ; and 
at length, if thrifty and industrious, he would build a good 
house and abandon the cabin. Other movers would settle 
near, then a town would be founded, and another, and an- 
other, and eventually a railroad would be built through the 
new settlement. The community is transformed in twenty- 
five years ; the markets are near, the comforts of life have 
multiplied, the farm of the first settler is nov/ worth thou- 
sands of dollars, and he has added other hundreds of acres 
to it. His children settle on the farm or enter the business 
or the professional world, and the ** old settler" spends 



NEW STATES 26/ 

his declining years amid peace and plenty. He gathers 
his grandchildren about him and tells of the days of long 
ago, of the long journey in the moving wagon, and of the 
time when the forest frowned on every side and the wolves 
howled about his lonely cabin in the wilderness. 

New States. — So great was the migration to the West 
that within ten years after the War of 1812 more than one 
fourth of the population of the country was west of the 
AUeghanies. When Ohio became pretty well settled, the 
people turned their eye's to the fair lands of the Wabash. 
More than forty thousand people settled in Indiana in the 
single year of 1816. In the South the movement of the 
population was equally wonderful. The first state of 
the Mississippi Valley to be admitted to the Union after 
Tennessee, was Louisiana (18 12), to be followed four years 
later by her northern sister of kindred name. Indiana was 
the first of six new states to enter the Union in six successive 
years, as follows: Indiana ( 18 16), Mississippi (181 7), Illinois 
(1818), Alabama (1819), Maine (1820), Missouri (182 i).i 

Administration of John Quincy Adams, i 825-1 829 

The Election of 1824. — As Monroe's second term drew 
to a close, the Democratic party, having absorbed the 
whole people, was divided into factions and several candi- 
dates for the presidency entered the field. When the time 
of election came, each candidate had his following in the 
electoral college and no one received a majority of the 
votes. John C. Calhoun was chosen Vice President, but 
the college failed to elect a President and, for the second 
time in our history, the choosing of a President went to the 
House of Representatives. 

'J 1 For dates of admission of all the states see Appendix. 



268 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Andrew Jackson of Tennesee. — The hero of New Orleans 
had received the highest number of electoral votes, ninety- 
nine ; John Quincy Adams, son of a former President, 
received eighty-four ; William H. Crawford of Georgia 
came third with forty-one, and Henry Clay received thirty- 
seven. This shut Clay out as, according to the Twelfth 
Amendment to the Constitution, only the three highest 
could be voted for by the House. John Quincy Adams was 
elected by the House and he chose Clay secretary of state. 




Lafayette's Visrr to Boston 
From an old print 



The Visit of Lafayette. — The political turmoil of the 
year 1824 was relieved by the visit to the United States of 
an aged, white-haired foreigner whom every American 
was ready to welcome as a father, the Marquis de Lafayette. 
Fifty years had passed since this noble Frenchman had 
come to America to offer his life and his fortune in the 
noble cause of liberty. Then a few struggling colonies, 
the nation had now become strong and powerful. Never 
in our history has any other foreigner received so glad a 
welcome, such an enthusiastic reception as that given to 
Lafayette. He arrived in August, 1824, visited every state, 



NEW DIVISION OF PARTIES 



269 



and spent the winter in Washington. Congress voted him 
$200,000 and a township of land in Florida as part pay for 
his services in the Revolution. He laid the corner stone 
of the Bunker Hill Monument in June, 1825, on the fiftieth 
anniversary of the famous battle. After spending fourteen 
months as the guest of a people he had never ceased to 
love, the aged Frenchman departed for his native land in 
the Bran dy w ine, 
named after the bat- 
tle in which he was 
wounded in southern 
Pennsylvania. 

New Division of 
Parties. — President 
Adams in his first 
message recom- 
mended a system of 
internal improve- 
ments at national 
expense.^ This sub- 
ject and the tariff 
brought about a new 
division of parties. 
A large number of 
the people believed 
as Adams did that 
the government should build roads, canals, and the like 
and that a high tariff should be maintained. These were 
called National Republicans. But a still larger number 

1 The most notable example of this was the Cumberland Roacl, begun in 
1806, extending from Cumberland to Wheeling, and later to Columbus, 
Indianapolis, and St. Louis. It was later transferred to the states in which it 
lies. 




John Quincv Adams 



2/0 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

held that each state or community should construct its 
own roads and canals and that the tariff should not be 
high. This party was led by Jackson. It had been called 
Democratic-Republican up to this time, but it now dropped 
the term ''Republican" and used the word "Democratic," 
by which it is still known. 

Congress did not agree with President Adams on most 
questions and few party measures could be carried out 
during the term ; but it agreed to raise the tariff in 1824, 
and again in 1828. This last tariff was so high that it was 
called the "Tariff of Abominations." 

Means of Travel 

The great migration of people across the mountains to 
the West awakened an intense desire for better modes of 



-r-v A ^^mfE 




travel and transportation. This came first in the form of 
the steamboat. By 1825 hundreds of steam vessels were 
plying the waters of the western rivers. But this was not 
enough. Nature had thrown a mountain wall between the 
eastern seaboard and the great valley of the Mississippi. 
This must be overcome if in the power of man to do it, and 
relief soon came in two forms — the canal and the railroad. 



CANALS 



271 



Canals, — The first great canal to be completed was the 
Erie Canal, from Albany to Buffalo — often called Clinton's 
Big Ditch, because Governor DeWitt Clinton of New York 
had done so much to complete it. This canal was a wonder- 
ful boon to New York. It caused a reduction of freight 
rates between Albany and Buffalo to about one tenth what 
they had been. It was also a great help to the farmers of 
Ohio and other near-by states, as they could now purchase 




On the Erie Canal, 1825 



their hoes, axes, and plows at a fraction of their former 
cost. 

A rage for canals then spread over the country and 
several others were constructed. But while the people 
were busy digging canals, another and far superior means 
of transportation came in to attract public attention. 

Railroads. — Our vast system of railroads had its begin- 
ning at this period. A road was first built from Philadel- 
phia to the Susquehanna River. The Baltimore and Ohio 
Railroad was begun in 1828. About this time short rail- 
roads were being built at Boston, Charleston, and in other 
parts of the country. On all the roads the cars were at 
first drawn by horses. Steam engines for drawing railroad 



2/2 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

cars were first brought from England about 1830. Later 
they were manufactured in this country and the drawing 
of cars by horses was gradually discontinued. 

The first steam engines were rude machines indeed, and 
they seldom ran more than fifteen miles an hour. Little 
by Httle they were improved until they developed into the 
magnificent flyers of to-day, by which one can cross the 
continent in a palace car at the rate of sixty miles an hour. 




An Early Railroad Train 

The United States at present has a far greater railroad 
mileage than any other country. 

, Religion ; Education; Literature 

In religion the intolerant spirit of Puritanism had 
passed away, but the people were not less religious. The 
pioneers of the West were so scattered that it was often 
impossible to have churches convenient to all. Then was 
instituted the "Camp Meeting." Men, women, and chil- 
dren would gather and hold a religious festival in the woods, 
covering days or even weeks. These meetings were often 
marked by the most extravagant shouting and shrieking, 



[.EDUCATION ^ 273 

but with all this there was much good accomplished and 
rough men were brought to conversion, who might not have 
been reached in any other way. 

Education was one of the first cares of the early settlers 
of the West. In organizing Ohio and other states a section 
of land in each township was set aside for the basis of a 
school fund, and the little log schoolhouse became an im- 
portant feature in nearly every settlement. 

Small colleges also were soon founded. The oldest col- 
legiate institution west of Pittsburg is Ohio University, at 
Athens, Ohio, organized by the legislature in 1804. 

Literature does not often spring from new settlements ; 
the people are too busy battling with the forests and the 
soil to give much attention to the refinements of life. We 
must therefore turn to the East for our early literature. A 
great deal of prose and poetry had been written in the 
colonial and Revolutionary periods, but almost none of the 
early productions are now read, except the writings of 
Benjamin Franklin. 

The first American to devote himself to literature and 
win a permanent success was Washington Irving, who was 
born in 1783. William Cullen Bryant, born in 1784, was 
our first great poet, and James Fenimore Cooper our first 
successful writer of fiction. Henry W. Longfellow and 
John G. Whittier, both born in 1809, were writing at the time 
of which we are treating. Among miscellaneous writers 
the first to win success were Ralph Waldo Emerson and 
Edgar Allan Poe. All these had published one or more 
successful books by 1830. A great Englishman had once 
asked, sneeringly, *'Who reads an 'American book'.?" 
The question could now be readily answered in one word 
— Everybody. 



2/4 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

SUMMARY 

The War of 1812 was useflil in bringing commercial independence 
and in strengthening the Union. 

In 1816 a second National Bank was chartered and a protective tariif 
was enacted. 

Monroe's administration was so peaceful and popular that it was 
called the " Era of good feeling.'' General Jackson defeated the 
Seminole Indians in 1818, and Florida was purchased of Spain in 1819. 

Missouri was admitted as a slave state in 1821, with the provision 
that in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase slavery should not exist 
north of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes. This is known as the 
"■ Missouri Compromise." 

The Monroe Doctrine, of December, 1823, is intended to prevent 
further encroachment of the European powers on the soil of America. 
The purpose is (i) to secure our peace and safety, and (2) to encourage 
republican government. 

A great movement of the people westward resulted in the admission 
of six new states in six successive years, 1816-1821. 

In 1824 the electoral college failed to choose a President and the 
House chose John Quincy Adams. His administration was not popular 
and few party measures could be carried out. 

The Means of Travel were vastly improved during the first quarter 
of the century. Steamboats took the place of flatboats and sailboats. 
Canals and railroads brought wonderful changes in travel by land. The 
Erie Canal, completed in 1825, went far in making New^ York the 
Empire State and New York City the metropolis of America. Canals 
were soon, supplanted, in a large measure, by the introduction of 
railroads. 

REFERENCES 

The general histories aforementioned, and Sparks, '• Expansion " ; 
McMaster. " History of the American People" ; Schouler, " History" ; 
Gordy, " A Political History " ; Sargent, " Public Men and Events " ; 
Wise, '"Seven Decades"; Roosevelt, "Winning of the West"; De 
Tocqueville, " Democracy in America " ; Stanwood, "' History of the 
Presidency"; Morse, "John Quincy Adams"; Curtis, " Daniel Web- 
ster " ; Schurz, " Henry Clay " ; Sumner, " Andrew Jackson." 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE REIGN OF JACKSON, 1829-1837 

We often speak of Andrew Jackson's presidency as the 
** reign " of Jackson, because no other President in time of 
peace became such a master in American affairs as he did. 

In the election of 1828 Jackson was the candidate of the 
Democrats and John Ouincy Adams of the National Re- 
publicans. Jackson was elected by a large majority, and 
John C. Calhoun became Vice President for a second time. 

The tide of democracy reached its highest point in the 
time of Jackson. We have noticed how, in the earlier 
period, strife arose between those who favored a govern- 
ment by the masses and those who favored a government 
by the few.^ The former won and by 1830 the rule of 
the democracy was supreme. In few states now was there 
a religious or property test as a qualification to vote. And 
at last the people had a President of their very own. 
Jackson was the first of all our Presidents to rise from the 
ranks of the common people. All his predecessors had 
come from rich or aristocratic famihes. 

Early Career of Jackson. — Andrew Jackson migrated 
from North Carolina to Tennessee, became the first repre- 
sentative in Congress from that state, and filled many other 
positions of trust.^ 

The wild life of the frontier set its mark upon Jackson's 
life. He killed Indians and wild animals and fought duels, 

1 See p. 220 2 3ee << Boyhood of Jackson," p. 285. 
275 



2/6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

as other men of that region did, and his opportunities for 
culture were meager. He had a violent temper, but was 

honest to the core and 
of pure morals. He 
leaped into fame at 
New Orleans in 1815 
and ever after was a 
:onspicuous figure. 

When Jackson was 
dected President, the 
people rejoiced greatly, 
for they felt that he 
was one of their own 
number, A vast crowd 
came to Washington to 
witness his inaugura- 
tion. The ceremonies 
over, a great reception 
was held at the White 

House, and the crowds 

Andrew Tackson , 1 j *.u r: 

■^ trampled the fine car- 

pets with their muddy boots. Jackson simply said, " Let the 
boys have a good time once in four years" — and nothing 
he ever said gives a deeper insight into the cause of his great 

popularity. 

The Spoils System 

For three things Jackson's administration will be re- 
membered in history. i. For introducing the Spoils 
System. 2. For crushing Nullification in South Carolina. 
3. For destroying the United States Bank. 

The Spoils System. — By this term is meant the habit 
of turning the old officials out of office, when the party in 
power is defeated, and putting in men who belong to the 




JACKSON AND CALHOUN 



277 



party that carried the election. The Presidents who pre- 
ceded Jackson appointed postmasters, revenue collectors, 
and the like because of their fitness, and not because of 
their party leanings, nor did they dismiss such officials 
except for incompetence or misbehavior. But Jackson 
dismissed many officials because they did not agree with 
him in politics and put men in the offices who belonged to 
his party. This evil practice fastened itself on the country 
and was followed by all parties for more than half a cen- 
tury. It is only in recent years that Civil Service Reform 
is bringing us back to the practice of the early Presidents. 

Nullification in South Carolina 

The outbreak in South Carolina, known as Nullification, 
was caused by a growing feeling of discontent which was 
intensified by the Tariff of 
Abominations, passed in 1 828. 
Another cause no doid^t was 
the serious quarrel between 
the two great southerners 

Jackson and Calhoun. — 
There were striking similari- 
ties between these two great 
men. Both were born in the 
Carolinas of Scotch-Irish par- 
entage ; both entered Con- 
gress at the age of thirty 
years and were lifelong leaders 
in the same great party. For 
many years they were fast 
friends. But an evil day 
came, and their friendship 
was forever at an end. About the time of the quarrel 




John C. Calhoun 



278 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

between them the feeling of opposition to the tariff reached 
its acute stage in South Carolina and Calhoun was the leader 
in that state. The spokesman for Calhoun in the United 
States Senate was Robert Y. Hayne. 

Great Debate between Webster and Hayne. — Calhoun took 
the ground that each state is sovereign, that the Constitu- 
tion is but a compact, and that any state may withdraw 
from the compact and govern itself if it preferred to do so. 

Senator Hayne was a highly educated, refined gentleman 
and one of the ablest men in the Senate. In 1830 he 
voiced the doctrine of Calhoun on state rights in a notable 
speech. He was answered by Daniel Webster in the most 
famous speech ever delivered in the Senate. Webster 
took the position that the Constitution is not a compact, 
but a law binding on every state and every individual. 
The speech closed with the well-known words " Liberty 
and Union now and forever, one and inseparable." 

Jackson crushes Nullification. — The rumblings of dis- 
content in South Carolina broke into open defiance in 
November, 1832, when a convention met at Columbia 
and solemnly declared the tariff of 1828 and that of 1832 
null and void in that state after the first of the following 
February, declared also that no appeal should be made to 
the Supreme Court, and that if the government attempted 
to use force, the state would set up a government of its 
own. This was the famous Nullification Ordinance, and 
it was a daring step to take while such a man as Jackson 
was President. 

The iron-willed President, while a strong friend of state 
rights, was an intense lover of the Union and he deter- 
mined that nullification and threats of secession should 
be crushed. He issued a proclamation to the people of 
South Carolina imploring them to reconsider their rash act, 



THE PRESIDENTIAL CONTEST 279 

and warning them that if they did not, the soil of their 
beloved state would be drenched in blood. He then had 
put through Congress a Force Bill enabling him to send 
troops to South Carolina to enforce the collecting of the 
tariff duties. 

Meantime Henry Clay brought in a compromise tariff 
measure, lowering the duties gradually for ten years. 
This was accepted by South Carolina and all danger of 
armed coUision was past. 

Jackson and the Bank 

The Presidential Contest. — The year 1832 was a stirring 
year in the American affairs. It was marked by the 
troubles in South Carolina, by the national election, and by 
the contest concerning the United States Bank. 

For the first time in our history the candidates for Pres- 
ident and Vice President were chosen by national party 
conventions, a practice that all parties have since followed. 
Before this time candidates were named by a Congres- 
sional caucus or by state legislatures. 

Jackson was nominated for reelection by the Democrats; 
Henry Clay was named by the National Republicans.^ In 
the midst of the campaign came the bank contest. The 
United States Bank had been chartered in 18 16, for twenty 
years. It had control, in a large measure, of the finances 
of the country. Jackson opposed the bank on the ground 
that such a powerful corporation might control the elections 
and thus interfere with free government. 

Henry Clay and his party were favorable to the bank, 
and to bring the matter to a crisis he had put through 

1 A third party in the field with William Wirt at the head of its ticket was 
the Anti-Masonic party. It carried one state, Vermont, at the election. The 
party soon fell to pieces. 



28o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Congress a bill to re-charter the bank for twenty years 
longer, though the old charter would not expire until 1836. 

Jackson vetoed Clay's 
bank bill (July, 1832). 
From this time the 
bank question was 
almost the only issue 
of the campaign. The 
Clay party took the 
ground that the des- 
truction of the bank 
would cause business 
failures and bring dis- 
aster on the country. 
But Jackson led his 
party to believe that 
the bank was a dan- 
gerous institution 
and he was elected 
by a large majority. 
Martin Van Buren 
of New York was elected Vice President. 

Removal of the Deposits. — President Jackson was not 
content with vetoing the new bank bill. He determined 
to strike a blow at the old bank and destroy it. In the 
fall of 1833 he informed his Cabinet of his intention to 
remove the government deposits from the bank and thus 
cripple it beyond recovery. This was a bold move be- 
cause such a course was sure to disturb the business of 
the country, as many business men and smaller banks 
were dependent on the United States Bank for loans. 

Jackson, however, was inflexible and the deposits were 
removed. The bank soon lost its influence and at length 




Henry Clay 



FRENCH SPOLIATION CLAIMS 28 1 

ceased to exist. It is now believed that Jackson did a 
great service for his country in destroying the bank, as 
such a monopoly, controlling the money of the people, 
would have become dangerous to our free institutions had 
it continued. 

Foreign Relations ; Indian Wars 

So great were the domestic affairs during Jackson's 
presidency that our foreign relations attracted little atten- 
tion, though they were of considerable importance. 

French Spoliation Claims. — America had a claim of 
$5,000,000 against France for the destruction of Amer- 
ican shipping during the presidency of Jefferson. 
This claim was admitted by France in 1831, but several 
ye irs passed and it was not paid. Jackson then issued a 
message concerning the matter which offended the French. 
As the claims were still unpaid Jackson came forth with a 
second message, more offensive than the first. This 
brought a settlement. The administration also secured 
settlements for similar long-standing claims against Spain, 
Denmark, and the Sicilies. 

Opening of the West Indian Trade. — The settlement of 
these claims pleased the people and made Jackson the 
more popular. But still more were the people pleased 
with the opening of our trade with the West Indies, which 
had been closed some years before by Great Britain. By 
making some concessions to the English the administra- 
tion won a complete victory and the whole people, espe- 
cially those engaged in foreign commerce, rejoiced at 
the advantages gained for our commerce. 

Indian Wars. — There were Indian wars during most of 
Jackson's administration. One of the most notable of 
these was the Black Hawk War of 1832. Black Hawk was 



282 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

chief of the Sac and Fox tribes along the upper Mississippi. 
The war arose from the usual cause of Indian wars — land 
cessions; and resulted in the usual way — in a complete 
defeat of the Indians. 

A more serious war with the Indians occurred in the 
South, known as the Second Seminole War. It began in 
1834 and continued for several years. The Seminoles 
had agreed by treaty to remove beyond the Missisippi, but 
as they were slow in starting, troops were sent to hasten 
them. They resisted, and their leader, Osceola, assassinated 
General Thompson while the latter was sitting at the table 
with some friends. 

General Winfield Scott was then sent against the 
Indians. In 1836 Osceola was captured by treachery, 
while under a flag of truce. Two years later he died in 
prison. But the war went on, continuing in all about seven 
years and costing about $30,000,000. Eventually the 
Indians were removed to their lands beyond the Mis- 
sissippi. 

Character of Jackson. — Andrew Jackson was one of the 
strongest characters in our history. Such leaders as Clay 
and Webster, his lifelong opponents, were powerless 
while Jackson occupied the political stage. Jackson had 
grave faults. He loved his friends, and hated his enemies, 
he could not govern his temper ; but he was sincerely 
honest and loved his country above all things. His great- 
est service to his country is found in the fact that many 
thousands of his followers needed just such a leader. 
They had not learned to love the nation above the state ; 
they needed a lesson in patriotism, and they receiv^ed it 
from Jackson. 

Jackson was a most devoted husband and, with all the rough- 
ness of his character, was extremely courteous to ladies. In 



ADMINISTRATION OF VAN BUREN 



283 



appearance he was tall and erect, his iron-gray hair thrown 
back in ridges from his forehead, while in bis eye was a 
" dangerous fixedness," and down his cheeks deep furrows 
ran. His expression showed will power. An English 
writer who had met him declared that he would be singled out, 
even among extraordinary men, as a man of superior cast. 



Adminstration of Van Buren, 1837-1841 

Martin Van Buren of New York was elected to succeed 
Jackson as President and Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky 
was elected Vice 
President.^ Van 
Buren's administra- 
tion may be treated 
almost as a part of 
Jackson's, though 
Van Buren never won 
the hearts of the 
people as Jackson 
had done. 

Van Buren was a 
descendant of the 
early Dutch settlers 
of New York. He 
served in the United 
States Senate, was 
governor of New 

York, secretary of state in Jackson's first term, and Vice 
President during his second term. He had the name of 
being a cunning politician ; but he also exhibited strong 

1 The electoral college failing to choose a Vice President, Johnson was 
elected by the Senate. 




Martin Van Buren 



284 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

elements of statesmanship. His administration must be 
identified with two things — the panic of 1837 and the 
estabHshing of the independent treasury. 

Panic of 1837. — At the time of Van Buren's administra- 
tion this panic, probably the most disastrous one in the 
history of the country, was reaching its worst stage. It 
was the result of various causes, the most important of 
which was the issue of great quantities of paper money by 
the banks, and a reckless spirit of speculation among the 
people. The crash came, as it always will under such 
conditions. Every bank in the country suspended specie 
payments. Thousands of merchants and manufacturers 
were forced to the wall, and great distress was brought on 
the country. Van Buren called an extra session of Congress 
to deal with the financial question, and recommended in 
his message the one and only memorable act of his admin- 
istration. 

The Independent Treasury. — By the independent treas- 
ury is meant simply a private place to keep the moneys of 
the government when not in use. The measure did not 
pass Congress at this session, but three years later, in 1840, 
it passed both houses and became a law. A few years 
later the law was repealed by another party, but in 1846 
it was reenacted and is still in force. The independent 
treasury, from its many branches in various cities, is often 
called the subtreasury. By it the government is relieved 
from its dependence on the banks for the care of the pub- 
lic money. 

SUMMARY 

Democracy had reached its height at the beginning of Jackson's 
administration. 

Jackson was the first of our Presidents to rise from the ranks of the 
common people. His administration is remembered chiefly for three 



BOYHOOD OF ANDREW JACKSON 285 

things: i. The introduction of the spoils system into our national 
politics; 2. The crushing of nullification in South Carolina; 3. Destroy- 
ing of the United States Bank. 

The most famous debate in the history of the Senate was that between 
Webster and Hayne in 1830. 

In 1832 Jackson was reelected over Clay, and in the same year 
occurred the Black Hawk War, the enactment of a tariff measure, 
nullification in South Carolina, and the passing and vetoing of a new 
bank charter. 

Martin Van Buren of New York succeeded Jackson as President, and 
his administration is marked by the panic of 1837 and the enactment 
of the independent treasury law in 1840. 

NOTE 

Boyhood of Andrew Jackson. — In 1765, two years after the French and Indian 
War had closed, Andrew Jackson's parents, who were Scotch-Irish, came from the 
north of Ireland and settled in South Carolina. Andrew, who was the third son, 
was born in 1767, his father having died a few weeks before his birth. The family 
lived in a little log hut in the wilderness. The mother sent her boys to school a 
few months each year in a log meetinghouse, paying their expenses by spinning 
flax. When but thirteen years old Andrew, now almost as tall as a man, became a 
soldier in the Revolutionary War and was taken prisoner. A British officer ordered 
him to clean his boots. The boy refused, declaring that he was a prisoner of war 
and would do no menial service. The officer then struck him with a sword and 
inflicted a severe wound. The officer then ordered Andrew's elder brother, who 
was also a captive, to clean his boots. He also refused and received a slash from the 
sword which caused his death. Andrew, after a short imprisonment, from which 
he was released through the pleadings of his mother, walked forty miles to his home 
while suffering with smallpox. Soon after this his mother died and he was left 
without immediate friends. When Andrew reached the age of eighteen, he decided 
to become a lawyer. He read law for two years and in 1788 joined a party moving 
to Tennessee, which was then a territory known as Washington County, North 
Carolina. Here Jackson made his permanent home, soon became one of the most 
prominent men in the territory, and when Tennessee became a state in 1796, he was 
its first representative in Congress. 



CHAPTER XVII 
RISE OF THE SLAVERY QUESTION 

For many years before the Civil War the most promi- 
nent issue in American poHtics was the slavery question. 

As early as 1787, at the time of the framing of the Con- 
stitution, the North and the South began to take opposite 
views of the slavery question. The first great contest 
between the two sections was that of 1820, resulting in 
the Missouri Compromise. This compromise was expected 
to bring harmony between the sections, and, indeed, for 
ten or fifteen years following 1820 there was no great 
agitation of the subject. 

Early Agitators. — First among the early antislavery 
agitators was Benjamin Lundy, who gave his life to the 
cause of the slave. He founded an antislavery paper in 
1 82 1, and made antislavery speeches in many states. 
Lundy, in one of his tours through New England, met 
William Lloyd Garrison, a young man of ardent spirit, 
who became his fellow-worker. Garrison soon surpassed 
Lundy. In 183 1 he founded the Liberator, which he pub- 
lished for many years, and in which he denounced slave- 
holders unsparingly. 

Sentiment at the North. — At this period there was not 
much of an antislavery feeling in the North. A great 
many people believed slavery to be an evil ; but they pre- 
ferred leaving it alone to quarreling with the South about 
it. In the South there was a widespread fear that the 

286 



CHANGE OF ATTITUDE IN THE SOUTH 287 

agitators would awaken a spirit of insurrection among the 
negroes. This fear was enhanced by a rising in Virginia, 
led by a fanatical slave named Nat Turner, in which sixty- 
one whites were killed. 

At first the agitators were frowned on by the public in 
the North. A school in Connecticut was broken up and 
the teacher thrown into prison for admitting colored chil- 
dren. Other similar scenes were enacted in various North- 
ern states. Frequently the Abolitionists were attacked by 
Northern mobs. 

But at length the agitators won such men as Wendell 
PhiUips, Ralph Waldo Emerson, John G. Whittier, Henry 
Ward Beecher, and other leading men, who became con- 
verts to the cause of abolition. 

Change of Attitude in the South ; Petitions. — Before 
1836 the South had generally confessed that slavery was 
an evil, which they had inherited, and could not get rid of 
if they would ; but in that year Calhoun set forth the doc- 
trine that slavery was a good thing. The whole South 
followed his lead and thenceforth defended the institution 
as necessary to Southern welfare. 

Meantime antislavery societies were growing up in the 
North, and they poured petitions into Congress for the 
abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia.^ At length 
the members of Congress grew so tired of these petitions 
that they made a rule to lay all of them on the table 
without debate. This was known as the " gag rule." The 
aged ex-President, John Quincy Adams, was then a mem- 
ber of the House, and he labored for several years for the 
repeal of the gag rule, and at length succeeded. 

The gag rule won for the Abolitionists many friends in 

1 Congress had no power to abolish slavery in the states ; but in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia it had full control. 



288 SCOOL HISHTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the North, for it was declared that they had been denied the 
right of petition, which is guaranteed by the Constitution. 

Another source of irritation was found in the use of the 
mails for abolition literature. Garrison and others sent 
many papers and pamphlets to the South through the 
mails, and the people of the South, fearing that the slaves 
might be incited to violence, resisted, and on some occa- 
sions broke open the mails and destroyed the objectionable 
literature. 

These were the beginnings of a contest that was to in- 
crease in volume till the whole nation was involved in a 
mighty struggle. 

Harrison and Tyler, 1841-1845 

Founding of the Whig Party. — The party opposing the 
Democrats in 1828, and again in 1832, was called National 
Republican ; but in 1834 a new party was founded and was 
called Whig. The chief founder of the new party was 
Henry Clay, and he was its leader as long as he lived. In 
1836 the Whigs had little hope of winning against Van 
Buren ; but in 1840 they nominated William Henry Harri- 
son and, after an exciting campaign, won the election. 

Harrison, the son of a signer of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, was the hero of Tippecanoe, and had been a 
United States senator ; but he was not considered a na- 
tional statesman in any sense. After a long public career 
he had retired to a farm at North Bend, an Ohio village 
near Cincinnati. His running mate was John Tyler of 
Virginia, who had been governor of that state. "Tippe- 
canoe and Tyler too " became the campaign cry of the 
Whigs. 

A Democratic editor stated that Harrison would be 
more in his element in his log cabin with a barrel of hard 



DEATH OF THE PRESIDENT 



289 



cider than in the White House. The Whigs took up this 
cry and made the log cabin the emblem of their campaign. 
They won a great vic- 
tory, electing Harrison 
by an electoral vote of 
two hundred and thirty- 
four to sixty for Martin 
Van Burcn. 

Death of the President. 

— Mr. Harrison had no 
opportunity to show 
what he could do as 
President. He was sixty- 
eight years old at the 
time of his inauguration 
and his health was not 
robust. He died on 
April 4, one month after 
becoming President. 

Tyler and the Bank. '^^"'^^^'^ "^^^^^' Harrison 

— John Tyler, the first Vice President to become President, 
was installed into the ofifice on the death of Harrison ; but 
it was not long until he had serious differences with his 
party, which continued to the end of his term. 

Harrison had called an extra session of Congress to deal 
with the money question. The Whigs were known to 
favor the establishing of a bank, similar to the one Jackson 
had destroyed. Congress was now controlled by the 
Whigs and when it met in extra session, it passed a bank 
bill, framed by Clay. Tyler vetoed the bill, to the great 
chagrin of his party. 

Some time later Congress passed another bank bill, more 
in accordance with Tyler's views, as was believed ; but he 




290 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



vetoed this one also. The Whigs then broke forth in 
wrath against the President and practically read him out 
of the party. All the Cabinet resigned, except Daniel 
Webster, the secretary of state. Webster was at this time 
negotiating a treaty with Lord Ashburton fixing the north- 
ern boundary of Maine. This Webster-Ashburton treaty, 

concluded in 1842, set- 
tled a serious dispute 
with England regard- 
ing the Northeastern 
boundary of the coun- 
try. 

Story of Texas. — 
Mexico emancipated 
her slaves in 1827, but 
her northern province, 
Texas, which was partly 
settled by slaveholders 
from our own Southern 
states, refused to do so. 
In 1836 Texas declared 
her independence from 
Mexico and became an 
independent republic. 
A Httle later Texas sought admission into our Union as a 
state. But there was much opposition in the North to her 
admission, as she was sure to become a slave state. 

President Tyler then determined to make annexation the 
great measure of his administration. John C. Calhoun at 
length became secretary of state^ and he bent every energy 

1 Calhoun did not immediately succeed Webster. Mr. Upshur of Virginia 
filled the office between the retirement of Webster and the appointment of 
Calhoun. Upshur was killed by the explosion of a great gun (February, 1844) 




NOMINATIONS OF THE WHIGS AND DEMOCRATS 291 

to bring- about the admission of Texas. ^ A treaty of annex- 
ation was signed and sent to the Senate, but was defeated 
by that body. The Texas question was thus left over and 
it became an important factor in the next national election. 

Presidential Election of 1844; Oregon 

President Tyler, after becoming estranged from the 
Whig party, had attempted to win the leadership in the 
Democratic party. He placed Democrats in high office, 
called them to his Cabinet, and the like. The Democrats 
accepted his favors and rejoiced that he had vetoed the 
bank bills, but refuised to make him their leader. Some 
of Tyler's friends, however, nominated him for the presi- 
dency ; but his following was not large and he withdrew 
from the field before the election. 

Nominations of the Whigs and Democrats. — The conven- 
tions of both parties met in Baltimore a few weeks apart. 
The Whigs, who met first, nominated their matchless 
leader, Clay, whom they fondly called the '' Mill Boy of the 
Slashes," and " Harry of the West." Twice before had 
Clay been a candidate for the great office — in 1824 and in 
1832 — and twice he had been defeated. But now his 
party was united and many believed that he would win. 

The Democrats, after taking several ballots, with several 
prominent candidates before them, turned to one who had 
scarcely been thought of and gave him the nomination. This 
was James K. Polk of Tennessee, the first "dark horse," 
or unexpected nominee for the presidency in our history. ^ 

while on an excursion down the Potomac on a government vessel. The Presi- 
dent narrowly escaped instant death. 

1 The news of Polk's nomination was flash*d from Baltimore to Washington 
by telegraph, and this was the first practical use of that wonderful invention. 
See note at end of the chapter. 



292 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania was chosen for second 
place on the ticket. 

The Platforms. — The platforms, or declarations of 
principles, of the two parties differed widely. The Whigs 

presented by 
far the more 
brilliant and 
captivating can- 
didate ; but the 
Democratic 
platform was 
more winning. 
It pronounced 
for the immedi- 
ate annexation 
of Texas, which 
pleased the 
South, and for 
the occupation 
of Oregon, 
which won great 
favor at the 
North. The 
-^^^^^^ ^- P'^^'^ Whig platform 

called for internal improvements, for a re-charter of the 
bank, and thus dealt with such questions as had been 
before the people for a long time. 

However, Clay might have been elected but for ill- 
advised letters that he wrote during the campaign, on the 
Texas question, in which he declared that he was not greatly 
opposed to annexation. By these letters he offended a 
small party, known as the Free Soil Party. This party 
was bitterly opposed to the annexation of Texas. Many 




SETTLEMENT OF THE OREGON BOUNDARY 293 

of its members were thinking of voting for Clay, until he 
wrote these letters. They then turned fiercely against him 
and supported their own candidate, James G. Birney. On 
this account Clay failed to carry the pivotal states of New 
York and Michigan, and Polk was elected. 

The slavery question thus played an important part in 
the election of 1844, and, it is believed, prevented the elec- 
tion of the great Whig leader and restored the government 
to the Democratic party. 

In the Cabinet of the new President we find at least two 
men well-known to fame — George Bancroft, the historian, ^ 
and James Buchanan, a future President. At the first 
Cabinet meeting President Polk declared that there were 
four great measures that should be the measures of his 
administration: i. A reduction of the tariff ; 2. A reenact- 
ment of the independent treasury law ; 3. The settlement 
of the Oregon boundary, and 4. Acquisition of California. 

James K. Polk was a strong and able President. He 
was the son of a sturdy farmer, the eldest of ten children, 
and born in North Carolina. He had moved to Tennesee, 
had been governor of that state, and had served fourteen 
years in Congress, being Speaker of the House for two 
terms. Polk was a man of stanch character, but a narrow 
partisan. He proceeded with much vigor to carry out the 
four measures we have mentioned. 

The independent treasury was reestablished in 1846, 
and in the same year the tariff was reduced in the enact- 
ment of the Walker Tariff.^ This tariff was in force for 
eleven years. 

Settlement of the Oregon Boundary. — Oregon was the 
name of the vast region in the Northwest comprising 

1 Bancroft soon resigned, and was sent as minister to England. 

2 So called because framed by Robert J. Walker, secretary of the treasury. 



294 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

half a million square miles. Both England and the United 
States claimed the whole of Oregon, and if either country 
had been weak and the other strong, the latter would doubt- 
less have secured the whole. But as both were strong and 
as neither wished to go to war over the matter, it was 
decided to arbitrate, and the Oregon country was divided 
in the middle. The American claim was based on actual 
occupation (some ten thousand Americans having settled 
in Oregon by 1845), on the voyage of Captain Grey, who 
in 1792 had sailed up the Columbia River, and on the ex- 
pedition of Lewis and Clarke. The northern boundary 
of Oregon was supposed to be fifty-four degrees and forty 
minutes north latitude, and the Democrats had made " Fifty- 
four forty or fight" a campaign cry in 1844. But this 
c mid not be adhered to, and the two countries decided on 
a compromise, each taking half of Oregon. The line of 
forty-nine degrees, which had been made the boundary from 
the Lake of the Woods to the crest of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, was now extended through the Oregon county to the 
Pacific. The part that fell to the United States now com- 
prises the great states of Washington and Oregon and 
parts of Montana and Idaho. 

The Mexican War 

What right President Polk had to make the acquisition 
of California a measure of his administration, has never 
been explained. California belonged to Mexico and that 
country had refused to sell it. 

California was the vast region in the Southwest, since 
carved into several states and territories. The soil of large 
tracts of it was exceedingly fertile and no more delightful 
cHmate can be found in the world. 



THE DISPUTED TERRITORY 



295 



How could President Polk secure this most desirable 
country ? The answer soon came in the approaching war 
with Mexico. 

A boundary dispute between Mexico and Texas was the 
supposed cause of the war. The real cause was the fact 
that President Polk and the 
slaveholders of the South 
wanted California, out of 
which to make more slave 
states. 

The Disputed Territory. — 
Texas was admitted into the 
Union in 1845, the bill for 
admission being passed be- 
fore Polk was inaugurated. 
This explains why Polk did 
not name five instead of 
four great measures for 
his administration. Texas 
claimed the Rio Grande 
River as her southern boundary while Mexico declared it 
was the Neuces River. The territory between the two 
rivers, therefore, was in dispute and the United States took 
the side of Texas. 

General Taylor in Mexico. — While this dispute was un- 
settled and before the declaration of war was made by 
either country. President Polk sent an army under General 
Zachary Taylor to the disputed territory, and the Mexicans 
stationed an army at Matamoras on the Rio Grande. In 
May, 1846, these two armies came together and fought 
two slight battles, called Palo Alto and Resaca de la 
Palma, in both of which the Mexicans were defeated. 
Taylor then crossed the river, captured Matamoras, and 




General Winfield Scott 



296 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



THE MEXICAN CAMPAIGN 



in September took the town of Monterey, after a bloody 
siege. 

General Taylor was then ordered to send more than half 
his army to General Scott, who was proceeding to Vera 
Cruz by sea. Taylor did this and was left with only about 
five thousand men in the midst of a hostile people. But 
strange to say, his greatest victory was yet before him. 
Santa Anna, who had become the Mexican commander, 

with an army of twenty thousand 
men, met Taylor at Buena Vista, 
and the battle of that name was 
fought (February 23, 1847). The 
result was a complete victory for 
Taylor, and this was his last ser- 
vice in the Mexican War. 

Scott's Great March on Mex- 
ico. — General Winfield Scott 
reached Vera Cruz with some 
twelve thousand men and cap- 
tured the city in March, 1847. 
He then began his famous 
march up the mountains toward 
the city of Mexico. Santa Anna, having collected another 
army, met Scott at a mountain pass called Cerro Gordo, and 
a fierce battle was fought. The Americans were completely 
successful. They then swept on up the mountains, reach- 
ing the summit in midsummer, eight thousand feet above 
the sea. 

In August two or three battles were fought and in Sep- 
tember the city of Mexico surrendered to the conquerors 
from the North. The war was over. It had continued 
nearly a year and a half and the Americans had won in 
every engagement. 




RESULTS OF THE MEXICAN WAR 



297 



Meantime the California country had been ''conquered," 
chiefly by John C. Fremont, a noted mountain explorer of the 

West. The few 

scattered Mexi- 
cans had been 
driven out and 
the country was 
held by the 
Americans. 

Results of the 
Mexican War. — 
The treaty of 
peace was signed 
in February, 1848. 
As every one had 
foreseen, the war 
resulted in the 
" acquisition of 
California" by the 
United States. 
That vast fertile 
region was ceded by Mexico simply because Mexico was 
helpless and could not do otherwise. Our government, 
however, did one honorable thing in the matter. It paid 
Mexico ^15,000,000 for the ceded lands, though Mexico 
had no power to demand anything.^ 

The Wilmot Proviso. — While the armies were busy on 
Mexican soil, there were lively scenes in Congress. Not 




Zacharv Taylor 



1 Five years later the United States purchased from Mexico the Messilla 
Valley, about forty-five thousand square miles of southern Arizona, for 
$10,000,000. The purchase was arranged by Captain Gadsden, and is 
known as the Gadsden Purchase. See map showing the Territorial Growth 
of the United States. 



298 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

since the time of the Missouri Compromise in 1820 had 
there been such agitation in Washington. In August, 
1846, while a debate on a bill to appropriate a sum of 
money for the purpose of settling the difficulties with 
Mexico was in progress, David Wilmot, a member of the 
House from Pennsylvania, added a proviso that slavery 
be forever excluded from the lands to be acquired from 
Mexico. This became known as the Wilmot Proviso. It 
involved the great question that had brought about the war. 

The whole South flared up against the proviso. It did 
not become a law, but the principle involved caused great 
commotion and a few years later threatened the very 
foundations of the Union. 

Discovery of Gold in California. — Little did the people 
of Mexico dream of the hidden wealth that lay beneath 
the surface of the lands they had ceded to the United 
States. Gold was discovered in California a few days 
before the treaty was signed.^ In the course of a few 
months the people of the coast were greatly excited over 
the new discovery. The news soon spread to every 
civilized land and was pubhshed in all the leading news- 
papers of the world.'^ 

Then began a rush for the California gold fields. Many 
from the East left their various occupations and set out for 
CaUfornia, — some by way of Cape Horn, others braving 
the deadly cHmate of Panama, while thousands crossed the 
western plains in moving wagons. A few of these early 
settlers on the coast realized their dream of wealth ; a 

1 Gold was first discovered by James Marshall, a carpenter in the employ of 
John A. Sutter, on the American River, near the base of the Sierra Nevada 
Mountains. 

2 For a fairly full account of the gold discovery see Elson's " Side Lights," 
Series II, Chapter XIII. 



SUMMARY 299 

greater number gained but a modest competence, but the 
majority met disappointment and returned broken in health, 
or filled an unknown grave in the wilderness. 

SUMMARY 

The slavery question overshadowed all others for many years before 
the war. The most vigorous agitator in the early thirties was William 
Lloyd Garrison; he founded the Liberator in 1831. 

For years the agitators, or Abohtionists, were despised in the South 
and the North, but at length they won the favor of many influential 
men. They poured antislavery petitions into Congress ; but Congress 
made the "gag rule," by which the petitions were ignored. This rule 
was repealed through the efforts of John Quincy Adams. 

The Whig Party was founded while Jackson was President. It 
elected Harrison and Tyler in 1840. Harrison died a month after his 
inauguration, and Tyler, who succeeded him, did not agree with his 
party. 

Texas was annexed to the Union in 1845, ^ft^f much opposition had 
been overcome. 

In the election of 1844 James K. Polk defeated Henry Clay. The 
fourjgreat measures of Polk's administration were: i. the reenactment 
of the independent treasury law ; 2. The enactment of the Walker 
Tariff; 3. Settlement of the Oregon boundary, and 4. The acquisition 
of California. This last was the result of a war with Mexico, which was 
caused by a boundary dispute in Texas. Soon after the war was over 
gold was discovered in California, and in the next few years many 
thousands of people went to the Pacific Coast in search of gold. 

NOTES 

Morse and the Telegraph. — Samuel F. B. Morse had labored for years on the 
telegraph, and had almost reduced himself to penury. In 1842 he was granted 
the privilege of setting jup his telegraph in the lower rooms of the Capitol. The 
experiment was successful, and the members of Congress could hardly believe their 
senses as Morse enabled them to converse with one another from the different 
rooms. And yet when he asked an appropriation of ^30,000 to establish an experi- 
mental line from Washington to Baltimore, there was much opposition. Many 
were the shafts of ridicule]thrust at the new invention. One member moved that half 
the appropriation be used to experiment in mesmerism; another, that an appropria- 
tion be made to construct a railroad to the moon. One prominent member pro- 



300 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

nounced all " magnetic telegraphs miserable chimeras, fit for nothing." Another 
lost his seat in the House at the next election because he voted for the appropria- 
tion. While the debate was in progress, Morse stood leaning against the railing in 
the House in great agitation. A friend went to console him, and Morse, placing 
his hand to his' head said, " I have an awful headache. ... I have spent seven 
years in perfecting this invention, and all that I had. ... If the bill fails, I am 
ruined. ... I have not money enough to pay my board bill." He was greatly 
relieved soon after by the passing of the bill. His fortune was made, and the name 
of Morse must forever be inseparable from the telegraph. See Sargent's " Public 
Men and Events," Vol. II, p. 193. 

The Dorr Rebellion. — Rhode Island, after the Declaration of Independence, 
retained its charter government, and many of the people were dissatisfied at the 
limited suffrage. In 1842 a portion of the citizens led by Thomas W. Dorr, a young 
lawyer, rose in an effort to secure a new constitution. A new government was set 
up, but the insurgents were dispersed by national aid, and Dorr was taken captive. 
He was tried for treason, and sentenced to prison for life, but was afterward par- 
doned. Dorr's principles prevailed in the end, and were embodied in the new 
constitution. 

Anti-rent Riots. — An uprising in New York, known as the " Anti-rent " riots 
began in the year 1839. Many farmers along the Hudson were obliged to pay a 
small annual rent to the descendants of the patroons of the old Dutch days. These 
tenants now determined to discontinue these payments. They held anti-rent 
meetings and resisted the officials. After some years of agitation the matter was 
compromised. A lump sum was paid the landlords and the payment of annual 
rents was abolished. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850 ; THE KANSAS- 
NEBRASKA BILL 

A SERIES of measures, known as the Compromise of 
1850, and sometimes called the Omnibus Bill, were brought 
about by the Mexican War and had a profound effect 
on the country. But before treating of these we must 
notice 

The Presidential Election of 1848. — The war brought 
before the American people one question of serious im- 
portance ; namely. Shall the lands acquired from Mexico 
become slave territory or free ? Much would depend on 
the next President. Who would he be ? 

The war toward its close became unpopular. The peo- 
ple of the North feared that the California country 
would become slave territory ; the South feared that it 
would not. Thus for opposite reasons both sections lost 
interest in the war, and the party in power suffered in 
consequence. The Whigs were hopeful. They nominated 
General Zachary Taylor, though he had never voted and 
knew but little of national politics. 

The Democrats nominated Lewis Cass of Michio:an. 
Cass was an interesting man. He had been governor of 
Michigan Territory for eighteen years, had served in the 
Cabinet of Jackson, as minister to France, and as a United 
States senator. But the hearts of the people were with 
the old war horse, the hero of Buena Vista, and he was 

301 



elected. Millard Fiiimurt; ui New York was elected Vice 
Ti cedent. 

We have noticed how a third party, the Free Soil party, 
caused the defeat of Clay in 1844. The same party now 
caused the defeat of Cass. It nominated Martin Van Buren 
and he polled such a large vote in New York, again the 
pivotal state, as to throw that state to Taylor. 

The great question for the new administration to decide 
was that brought forward in the Wilniot Proviso — slavery 
or no slavery in the great Southwest. All eyes turned to 
the new President. He was a native of Virginia ; he 
owned a plantation with one hundred and fifty slaves in 
Louisiana, and the South hoped for much from him. But 
Taylor had declared that he would not be a sectional 
President. 

The discovery of gold meantime played a great part in 
making California a free state. ^ The men who went to 
the mines were not slave owners. Most of them were 
laborers without property, and they did not relish the idea 
of inviting the black bondsman to become a sharer of their 
toil. In 1849, therefore, when the Calif ornians met in 
convention and framed a state constitution, they excluded 
slavery by a unanimous vote. 

President Taylor then showed his courage and patriotism 
by recommending that California be admitted a free state. 
The South was greatly chagrined over the turn of affairs. 
The slaveholders had fondly hoped to make slave states 
of the Southwest, so as to preserve their power in the 
Senate ; and now to have this fairest portion elude them 
was galling in the extreme. They threatened to secede 

1 No other state had been settled so rapidly as had California. Tn a year 
and a half after the discovery of gold the population exceeded a hundred 
thousand. 



THE OMNIBUS BILL 303 

from the ULii.vf- U" California were not divided and the 
southern hair r;)ade a slave state. A convention of south- 
ern statesmen met at Nashville and decided that a state had 
the rio-ht to secede from the Union. 



'&' 



Clay's Last Great Service 

From the founding of the government to the Civil War 
the darkest and most threatening year was 1850. The 
South was greatly agitated over free California ; the North 
was divided, some willing to yield to the South for sake of 
peace, others declaring that slavery should encroach no 
further on free soil. While the country was in this un- 
settled state, Congress met. In the Senate for the last 
time was the great triumvirate, — Clay, Webster, and Cal- 
houn, — all of whom had figured in every important govern- 
mental movement for forty years. 

The Omnibus BiU. — Henry Clay took the lead and early 
in the session came forward with a bill containing eight 
items, known as the Omnibus Bill, which he declared to 
be necessary to the salvation of the country. Two items- 
in this bill were of great importance — the admission of 
California and the proposed Fugitive Slave Law. This 
bill absorbed the attention of Congress for nearly nine 
months and was at length passed in sections. Clay an- 
nounced that on a certain day in February he would speak 
on his bill and thousands of people came to Washington 
to hear this last great effort of his life. 

Three Great Speeches were delivered in March by Cal- 
houn, Webster, and William H. Seward of New York. 
Calhoun had written his speech, but he was so feeble that 
he could not read it and this was done by another.^ In 

1 Calhoun died on the last day of March, 1S50. 



304 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



this speech he showed how one bond after another that 
held the North and the South together had been snapped, 
and called upon the North to cease encroaching upon the 
rights of the South. 

Webster spoke a few days later and awakened much oppo- 
sition in his own section by denouncing the Abolition party 

of the North and 
by favoring the 
proposed Fugi- 
tive Slave Law. 

Seward fell be- 
low Webster in 
oratorical power, 
but he made some 
telling points. 
He declared that 
a Fugitive Slave 
Law could not be 
enforced in the 
North, and that 
there was a 
'* higher law than 
the Constitution," 
the law of con- 
science. 

Death of Presi- 
dent Taylor. — 
Twice had the 
Whigs elected a 
soldier President, and twice were they called on to mourn 
the death of their President before his term was half fin- 
ished. Taylor died, after a brief illness, on the 9th of 
July, 1850. Millard Fillmore, who had been elected Vice 




Daniel Wehstk.r 



ENACTMENT OF THE COMPROMISE 



305 



President, was now installed into the office. Fillmore, who 
had been a leading lawyer of Buffalo and a member of 
Congress, had risen from the lowest walks of life by in- 
dustry and toil. As President he favored the enactment 
of a Fugitive Slave Law, contrary to the sentiment in his 
own section; but he was doubtless honest and his ob"' t 
was to quiet Southern agitation over free California. 

Enactment of the Compromise. — The death of the Presi- 
dent had but temporarily disturbed the debates on the 
compromise. The various 
items were passed sepa- 
rately in August and Sep- 
tember. Two of these, 
as stated, were of great 
significance, free Califor- 
nia being offensive to the 
South, and the Fugitive 
Slave measure to the 
North. 1 The South, how- 
ever, at length agreed to 
accept free California, 
with the understanding 
that the North would 
honestly observe the 
Fugitive Slave Act, which 
became a law in Septem- 
ber. But the enforcement of this law depended, not on 
Congress and the politicians, but on the will and con- 
science of the people. 

The Fugitive Slave Law was intended to aid the slave 




Millard Filmore 



1 Other items of the Omnibus Bill were : organizing New Mexico as a terri- 
tory without the Wilmot Proviso, paying Texas $10,000,000 for her claim on 
New Mexico, and abolishing the slave trade in the District of Columbia. 
X 



3o6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

owner in capturing his slaves if they attempted to run 
away. A similar law had been enacted fifty-seven years 
before, while Washington was President, but had seldom 
been enforced. This law of 1850 did not permit the slave 
to testify in his own behalf, and the benefit of a jury was 
denied him. If his pursuer testified that he was the man 
wanted, the commissioner before whom he was tried usually 
decided against the accused. 

Fugitive Slave Law in Operation. — Could this law be 
enforced .'' Thousands of people believed that a man held 
in bondage for no crime — simply because of the color of 
his skin and the accident of his birth — had a right to escape 
if he could. Many were inclined to aid the fleeing black 
man ; but the law demanded that they aid his pursuer, if 
called on to do so. Thousands of people in the North 
now determined to follow the " higher law " of conscience 
rather than the law of the land. The result was that many 
negroes made their escape through the aid of Northern 
sympathizers, and many were the exciting scenes, some- 
times resulting in bloodshed, but more frequently in the 
escape of the runaway. The law was denounced from 
thousands of pulpits, and by the press of the North, as an 
unjust and wicked measure. Many of the Northern states 
passed personal liberty laws for the protection of free 
blacks, or for regulating the slave-catching business. A 
few even demanded a trial by jury for the fugitive. This 
was practically nullifying the national law. 

The Underground Railroad. — There were many negroes 
in the North who had at some time escaped from slavery. 
All these were now subject to arrest under the new law. 
Furthermore, there was an ever increasing stream of slaves 
escaping to the free states. Many, it is true, had no desire 
to escape, either from gross ignorance, or because they were 



UNCLE TOM'S CABIN 307 

kindly^treated by humane masters. But many watched for 
an opportunity and escaped to the North. Seldom, how- 
ever, would they have succeeded in evading their pursuers 
had they not been aided by people of the North. Some 
Northern people gave their whole time to aiding the fugi- 
tives ; they had regular stations ten miles or more apart 
where they hid the runaways during the day and sent them 
on their way at night. This system was known as the 
Underground Railroad. 

The forcing of the Fugitive Slave Law on the Northern 
people was a great blunder on the part of the South. It 
led the people to see slavery in its worst phase and did 
more than all the sermons and speeches ever made to 
unify the North against the institution of slavery. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin. — One of the strongest factors in 
moulding public opinion at this period was *' Uncle Tom's 
Cabin," written by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. This 
novel, which came out within two or three years after the 
Compromise measures were passed, gave a picture of slave 
life as no other writing had ever done. The book attracted 
vast numbers of readers and played a great part in bringing 
about a political revolution in i860. 

Administration of Franklin Pierce 

While the agitation over the Fugitive Slave Law was at 
its height, the people were again called to the quadrennial 
duty of electing a President. 

The Presidential Election of 1852. — For a long time the 
political sky had not seemed less clear. The Whigs were 
a disor2:anized mass and the Democrats were in little better 
condition. The Democratic convention, which met in Bal- 
timore the 1st of June, considered several aspirants — 



308 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



James Buchanan, Stephen A. Douglas, William L. Marcy 
— all prominent leaders. Not being able to choose any of 
these, the convention named a " dark horse " in the person 
of Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire. Pierce had served 
in both houses of Congress, and was a general in the Mexi- 
can War, but was 
not a broad na- 
tional statesman 
nor a leader of his 
party. 

The Whigs met 
a little later in the 
same city. The 
party was rent from 
top to bottom on 
account of the 
Compromise meas- 
ures. The South- 
ern wing of the 
party demanded 
that the convention 
indorse the Fugi- 
franklin Pierce tive Slave Law as 

the Democrats had 
done. The North objected, but at length yielded, and 
General Winlield Scott was nominated for President. The 
Southern Whigs, however, refused to give a hearty sup- 
port to Scott, and he steadily lost ground during the cam- 
paign. Pierce was elected by a great majority, Scott 
carrying but four states, — Vermont, Massachusetts, Ken- 
tucky, and Tennessee. 

Fall of the Whig Party. — Twice had the Whigs elected 
a soldier President. Both had died in office, and now they 




THE OSTEND MANIFESTO 309 

had chosen a third, greater than either, but failed to elect him. 
The times had changed. The Whig party was tottering and 
ready to crumble to pieces. Within this same year that 
marked the defeat of Scott both the great leaders of the 
party — Henry Clay and Daniel Webster — passed away. 
But it was not the death of the two leaders that caused the 
death of the party. It was rather the fact that there were no 
longer great issues between the two parties. The only im- 
portant issue, the slavery question, was sectional and not 
partisan. As the two great parties, therefore, had little to 
contend for, except spoils, it was natural that one of them 
should cease to be, for two of a kind cannot exist together in 
the political world. The Democratic party survived, not 
because it was better than the Whig party, but chiefly be- 
cause it escaped the odium of the Compromise Measures of 
1850. Many Democrats had supported them also, but they 
were introduced by the Whig leader and signed by the 
Whig President ; it was that party, therefore, that had to 
answer to the people. After the drastic defeat of Scott 
the party steadily declined and ere the coming of the 
next presidential contest the story of its life was history. 

The Ostend Manifesto. — For many years, almost from 
the founding of the government, there was an equal num- 
ber of slave and free states. This preserved to each sec- 
tion equal power in the Senate, and the South was anxious 
to maintain its power in the Senate so as to prevent legis- 
lation unfriendly to slavery. But the admission of Cali- 
fornia as a free state had broken the balance. Moreover, 
the South had used up its share of the Louisiana Pur- 
chase, while in the Northwest there was a vast territory 
yet to be carved into free states. 

In order to regain its power, therefore, the South 
turned to Cuba. The aim was to annex that island to 



3IO SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the United States and to make one or more slave states 
of it. 

There were Northern statesmen who were to some extent 
in sympathy with the South and were not unwilling to do 
the slaveholders a favor when occasion offered. Among 
these was James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, now minister 
to England. In 1854 he and our ministers to France and 
Spain met at the little town of Ostend in Belgium to con- 
sider the subject of annexing Cuba. They issued an 
address, known as the Ostend Manifesto, in which they 
urged the transfer of Cuba to the United States, by pur- 
chase if possible, by force if necessary. President Pierce 
was known to favor annexation, but his administration did 
not act on the manifesto.^ 

Perry in Japan. Another event of this same year, 
which is far more pleasing to remember, was the expedi- 
tion of Commodore Matthew C. Perry to Japan. Ten 
years before this (1844) China had opened five ports 
to the trade of the United States. But Japan was 
closed to the outside world till the coming of Perry, 
who secured a favorable commercial treaty with the Jap- 
anese. From that time we have traded freely with Japan ; 
and that country, having then begun to introduce the 
ideas of western civilization, has since risen to a first class 
power. 

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Franklin Pierce chose Wil- 
liam L. Marcy, former governor of New York, secretary 

^ In 1849 and again in 185 1 Narcisco Lopez led a filibustering expedition 
to Cuba for the purpose of rescuing the islands from Spain. This expedition 
was supposed to be in the interest of the slave states, with the object of bring- 
ing Cuba into the Union. Lopez was taken captive and put to death. In 1854 
William Walker made a similar expedition to Nicaragua, seized the govern- 
ment, and held it for two years. At length Walker also was overpowered and 
executed. 



RECEPTION OF THE BILL 31 1 

of state, and Jefferson Davis, who had made a reputation 
in the Mexican War, as secretary of war. 

In his inaugural address Pierce had promised the coun- 
try rest from the distracting slavery question, but within 
a year came the fiercest political storm that the country 
had yet experienced. It came in the form of the Kansas- 
Nebraska bill, and Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois was its 
author. Douglas was chairman of the Senate committee 
on territories. In January, 1854, he brought a report 
before the Senate to organize the northern part of the 
Louisiana Purchase, a vast region known as Nebraska, 
extending from Missouri northwestward to the boundary 
of Canada. Douglas's bill divided this into two parts to 
be called Kansas and Nebraska, and the one thing about 
it that caused great excitement and awakened fierce oppo- 
sition was the provision that each of these territories should 
decide for itself whether or not to have slavery within its 
bounds. All this territory lay north of thirty-six thirty, 
the Missouri Compromise fine, which had stood like a wall 
for thirty-four years. ^ The bill was fought at every step 
by such powerful leaders as Seward and Salmon P. Chase, 
but so great was Douglas's power that he secured its 
passage through both houses. 

Reception of the Bill. — The Kansas-Nebraska bill 
pleased the South ; and to win Southern support in the 
next presidential election was probably the chief object of 
Douglas in introducing it. But it stunned the North. 
Thousands of people in the North had fondly believed 
that whatever the aggressions of slavery, it could never 
come north of thirty-six thirty ; and now to have their 

1 The original bill practically set aside the Missouri Compromise, but before 
it was passed an amendment was added which actually repealed the compro- 
mise of 1820. 



312 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

idol shattered at a blow was more than they could stand. 
Douglas was denounced on every side. He had been a 
Democratic idol in the North ; but now he had made a 
frightful blunder in having this measure enacted into law 
without making it an issue in any campaign, or in anyway 
consulting the wishes of his masters, the people. 

Founding of the Republican Party. — The immediate re- 
sult of the Kansas-Nebraska Law was the founding of a 







new political party, which should make the non-extension 
of slavery its chief corner stone. ^ 

It was an opportune time to found a new party. 
I. There were thousands of Democrats, known as anti- 
Nebraska Democrats, who could not longer remain with 

1 The pupil should notice that it was not the abolition of slavery, but the 
non-extension of slavery in the territories, that became the basis of the new 
party. Abolition did not become a tenet of the party until the Civil War had 
progressed nearly two years. 



FOUNDING OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY 313 

the party to which they and their fathers had adhered so 
many years. 2. The Northern Whigs, whose party had 
been shattered to fragments. 3. The Know-nothings. 
The Know-nothing, or American, party had come into 
existence in the late forties, and had grown with wonderful 
rapidity. It gained control of several states, but was now 
fast declining. Most of its members were ready to join 
the new movement. 

In the spring of 1854 meetings were held in various 
states, notably in Wisconsin, Michigan, Vermont, and Ohio, 
at which the general conclusion was that "a new national 
party should be founded. The movement was spontaneous 
in all sections of the North, and in the state fall elections, 
1854, most of the Northern states were carried by the anti- 
Nebraska people. These elections were carried under 
different names, as Fusion, anti-Nebraska, and the like, 
the name Republican not coming into general use till 
1856. 

The party was first organized at Pittsburg in February, 
i856.^A great meeting in that city, in which all the free 
states except California were represented, decided that a 
new party be founded on the principle of the non-extension 
of slavery, and that its name be Republican. This meet- 
ing then called a national convention of the new party to 
be held in Philadelphia the following June for the purpose 
of making nominations for the presidential election of 1856. 

Population ; Inventions ; Literature 

The population in 1850 had increased to a little more 
than twenty-three millions. The increase in ten years, which 
exceeded four millions, was greater than the entire popula- 
tion at the adoption of the Constitution, and was due in 



314 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

part to a great influx of immigrants, chiefly German and 
Irish. Two causes led to this unusual immigration — the 
discovery of gold in California, which allured men to 
America, and the political oppression in Europe, which 
drove many to seek a home where they could enjoy greater 
liberty. Nearly all the newcomers settled in the North. 
They came to earn their living by labor, and refused 
to settle in the South, where labor was considered de- 
grading. 

Useful Inventions. — Perhaps no country in history ever 
before produced so many inventions of world-wide impor- 
tance in an equal period as did America in the twenty 
years between 1830 and 1850. 

Among the most important were the mower and reaper, 
patented by Cyrus McCormick in 183 1, by which the great 
wheat farms of the Northwest were made possible ; and 
the sewing machine, invented by Elias Howe in 1846, 
by which woman was in a great measure set free from 
slavery to the needle. As labor-saving machines these 
two inventions have never been surpassed. 

The telegraph, noticed in a preceding chapter, was 
patented in 1837 by Samuel F. B. Morse, but did not come 
into practical operation until six or seven years later. By 
this wonderful invention the time element in the trans- 
mission of news is almost eliminated. An illustration will 
show how the telegraph has made the world akin. I have 
before me a New York newspaper dated August 4, 181 5. 
Its chief foreign news item is an account of the great bat- 
tle between the French and the allied powers at Waterloo, 
in which Napoleon was overthrown. This was the first 
news to reach America of that famous battle which had 
been fought on the i8th of June, nearly seven weeks 
before, and several weeks were yet to pass before it 










j^'';t^~ 




i 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 315 

could reach the interior of the country. How great the 
contrast with the following : The Coronation of King Ed- 
ward VII of England took place on August 9, 1902, at 
noon, and some hours before noon of the same day the 
account of the event was read on the streets of the Ameri- 
can cities.^ 

Hand in hand with the telegraph came the cylinder 
press, first operated in 1847, by which, with all its improve- 
ments to this day, the news received from the wires and 
put in type is printed and folded in newspaper form at the 
rate of forty-eight thousand an hour/^ 

American Literature. — The period preceding the war 
was, thus far, the golden age in American literature. The 
older writers, as Washington Irving, James Fenimore 
Cooper, Bryant, Poe, and a few others, had produced most 
of their best work before 1840, but much of the best in our 
literature came within the following decades. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne, the most perfect master of style, 
wrote "The Scarlet Letter," "The Marble Faun," and 
" The House of Seven Gables." Emerson wrote thoughtful 
essays on many subjects, as well as poetry of a high order. 
Longfellow and Whittier wrote many poems that are now 
well known to all classes of the people. O. W, Holmes 
and James R. Lowell were poets of wide reputation, and 
also prose writers of considerable note. Holmes's " Auto- 
crat of the Breakfast Table," and Lowell's literary criti- 
cisms are among the classics. 

Among the minor poets the most notable were Fitz- 
Greene Halleck, the author of "Red Jacket" and of 
" Marco Bozzaris," Joseph Rodman Drake, Charles 
Sprague, John G. Saxe, and Hannah F. Gould. 

1 The teacher should explain the difference in time between the two 
countries. 2 ggg Elson's History, p. 617. 



3l6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The leading historians of the time were George Bancroft, 
WilHam H. Prescott, Francis Parkman, and John Lothrop 
Motley. 

SUMMARY 

Zachary Taylor was elected President in 1848. Soon after his inau- 
guration the question of slavery or no slavery in the lands acquired 
from Mexico came up for solution. The discovery of gold in Cali- 
fornia aided in making California a free state. 

In 1850 Henry Clay introduced the Compromise measures, the most 
important of which was the admission of California as a free state and 
the Fugitive Slave Law. The Fugitive Slave ^Law was evaded in the 
North, fleeing slaves being aided by means of the Underground Rail- 
road. President Taylor died in 1850, and Millard Fillmore, who had 
been elected Vice President, succeeded him. 

Franklin Pierce became President in 1853. In February, 1854, 
Stephen A. Douglas introduced the Kansas-Nebraska bill, repealing 
the Missouri Compromise. The bill caused great consternation in the 
North, and one of its results was the founding of the Republican party 
(1854), whose chief tenet was the non-extension of slavery in the ter- 
ritories. The party was at first composed chiefly of anti-Nebraska 
Democrats, and the fragments of the shattered Whig and Know-nothing 
parties. 

NOTES 

Anecdotes of Clay. — No man in public life in America ever had greater 
power in winning personal friends than Henry Clay. When John Randolph who 
had been Clay's political enemy for many years, and with whom he had fought a 
duel, visited Washington, in the last year of his life, he called on Clay. Clay 
received him very kindly, and asked about his health. Randolph replied, " I'm 
dying. Clay, I'm dying," — " Why, then, " asked Clay, " do you venture so far from 
home? Why did you come here?" — "To see you," answered Randolph ; "to 
see you and have one more talk with you." 

When Clay made his famous farewell address to the Senate in 1846, he brought 
tears to every eye. At the close of his speech as he was passing out of the chamber, 
he came face to face with Calhoun. They had been enemies, and had not spoken 
for five years, but at heart each really loved the other. Now at this meeting, all 
animosity was forgotten, and without a word they fell into each other's arms and 
wept silently. On one occasion when Clay was making a tour through the South, 
there was on the same train a farmer, an old-school Democrat, who was invited 
to step into the next car and meet Clay. " No," he answered, " I would not be 



THE CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY 317 

seen shaking hands with Henry Clay, the old Whig." He was informed that his 
idol, Van Buren, had often done so. The farmer declared that he did not believe 
it, that Van Buren would never do such a mean thing. He offered to make a bet 
that lie was right and agreed to let Clay himself decide the bet. They came to 
Cla\'sseat and stated the case. "Yes," answered Clay, "Van Buren is a good 
friend of mine, and he made me a visit at my home in Lexington. Setting aside his 
bad politics, he is an agreeable gentleman and a right clever little fellow." The man 
paid his bet, and went away mutteiing that if that is the way the great men acted, 
they might fight their own battles hereafter ; he didn't believe they were in earnest 
anyhow, only pretended to be so as to set others by the ears. — See Sargent's 
" Public Men and Events," Vol. II, p. 221. 

The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. — This subject has been relegated to a note, not 
because it is of minor importance, but because it did not exactly fit in our slavery 
discussion. John M. Clayton was secretary of state under President Taylor. He 
arranged with Henry Lytton Bulwer, the British minister at Washington, the famous 
treaty that bears the name of both. The object of this treaty was to facilitate and 
protect the construction of a canal at Nicaragua between the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans. By this treaty both countries pledged themselves never to obtain exclusive 
control over said proposed canal, nor to erect fortifications commanding it, nor to 
colonize or exercise doininion over any portion of Central America. They further 
agreed to protect any company that should undertake the work, and to facilitate its 
construction, and guaranteed the neutrality of such canal when completed. But 
few years passed after the consummation of the treaty before it became the object 
of serious discussion, the provisions being differently construed in the two countries. 
At length the canal question subsided, and for many years it attracted little atten- 
tion. Meantime the Pacific coast of the United States became filled with people, 
the relative interests of the two countries were greatly changed, and it was evident 
that the terms of the treaty were disadvantageous to the United States. After many 
years' negotiation, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was abrogated by a new treaty (1902), 
known as the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, by which the United States secures full power 
to construct and to operate the proposed canal. 



CHAPTER XIX 



DRIFTING TOWARD WAR 



Presidential Election of 1856. ^ Franklin Pierce had 
hoped for a renomination at the hands of the Demo- 
crats, but his 
popularity had 
waned steadily 
throughout his 
term. Doug- 
las might easily 
have been the 
choice of the 
party had he 
not staked too 
much and lost 
in his daring 
play in the pres- 
idential game. 

The most 
available can- 
didate in the 
party was James 
Buchanan of 
Pennsylvania. 
Buchanan had 
never, in his long public life, cast a vote unfriendly to 
Southern interests, and was, therefore, acceptable to the 

318 




James Buchanan 



PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1856 



319 




South. Moreover, he was the only prominent man in the 
party whose name was not tainted with Kansas-Nebraskaism, 
and the North seemed ready to forgive him for his part in 
the Ostend. Manifesto. He carried off the honors of the 
convention with little 
opposition, and John C. 
Breckenridge of Ken- 
tucky was placed on the 
ticket for second place. 

The Republican con- 
vention met in Philadel- 
phia, as called by the 
Pittsburg meeting. No 
party was ever founded 
on truer motives or led 
by more unselfish men 
than was this new-born 
party. And yet this 
convention made an un- 
accountable blunder in 
the selection of a candi- 
date for President. 

Seward was the leader of Northern thought, and had been 
since the passing of Webster, but he had not identified 
himself with the new party at its founding and did not 
seek the nomination. Other leaders, as Chase and Justice 
McLean of the Supreme Court, were set aside, and, on the 
first ballot, the choice fell on JohnC. Fremont of California. 
Fremont was known as an adventurer and a mountain ex- 
plorer of the far West, and for nothing more. As the 
campaign progressed charges of corruption which could 
not be met were brought against him. Many Republi- 
cans regretted the choice of the party. Buchanan was 



John C. Fremont 



320 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

considered a safe man by all classes and was elected, hav- 
ing received the votes of all the Southern states except 
Maryland ^ and of five states in the North. 

Administration of Buchanan 

The Dred Scott Decision. — Nearly every great question 
of the time bore in some way on slavery, and not the least 
among them was the Dred Scott Decision of 1857. 

Dred Scott was the slave of Dr. Emerson, an army 
surgeon. The doctor was stationed for a time in Illinois 
and later at Fort SnelUng, Minnesota, both free territory. 
Dred Scott, who had been with his master at these points, 
sued for his freedom, after their return to Missouri, on 
the ground that he had been held in slavery on free ter- 
ritory. The case was finally decided by the Supreme 
Court of the United States. A majority of the justices 
decided against Scott, and he remained in slavery. ^ 

The court not only decided on the simple case of Dred 
Scott, it went out of its way to pronounce the Missouri 
Compromise unconstitutional. Chief Justice Taney de- 
clared that free negroes could not become citizens, and 
that as slaves were property recognized by the Constitu- 
tion, no power, not even Congress, could prohibit slavery 
in the territories. 

The Republican party, founded on the principle of non- 
extension of slavery, could not and did not accept such a 
doctrine as final. 

The Dred Scott decision, like the Kansas-Nebraska bill, 

1 The remnants of the old Whig and Know-nothing parties had nominated 
ex-President Fillmore, who carried the solitary state of Maryland in the elec- 
tion. 

^ Dred Scott was soon afterward set free by his master. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS 321 

settled nothing. It only intensified the feelings of the 
people and hastened the crisis. 

The Struggle for Kansas. — The Kansas-Nebraska bill 
was intended, as its author professed, to give popular sov- 
ereignty, on the slavery question, to the territories ; that 
is. Congress should be relieved from the troublesome sub- 
ject; the people of the territories should decide for them- 
selves. In one instance only was this law put into operation 
— in Kansas — and a sorry exhibition it was. 

While Pierce was President, and soon after the law had 
opened the territory of the Northwest to slavery, the peo- 
ple of Missouri began to cross into Kansas with the intent 
of making it a slave state. The people of the North then 
determined to outdo the Missourians by migrating in 
greater numbers, and hundreds, especially from New Eng- 
land, left their homes to become settlers on the plains of 
Kansas. 

Soon there was a clash ; there was border warfare and 
bloodshed. No state in the Union, not even those bathed 
in the blood of early Indian wars, surpassed Kansas in the 
fierce contests of its early years. 

The attitude of Buchanan was eagerly awaited on his 
becoming President. The contest in Kansas had been 
raging for nearly three years. Many had been killed ; 
elections had been carried by violence and fraud, and rival 
governments had been set up. One governor after another 
had been sent to the territory, only to find a political grave. 

President Buchanan promised justice to both sides and 
doubtless meant what he said. But from some cause he 
later threw the weight of the administration against the 
party that strove for free Kansas. The proslavery party 
elected a legislature that framed a constitution, known as 
the Lecompton constitution, making Kansas a slave state ; 



322 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED -STATES 

but they refused to submit the constitution to a fair vote 
of the people, knowing that the opposite party greatly 
outnumbered their own. This constitution was sent to 
Washington and its framers sought the admission of Kan- 
sas into the Union as a slave state. 

Attitude of Douglas. — Stephen A. Douglas had thrown 
the country into turmoil by his Kansas-Nebraska bill, but 
had not meant to bring injury to the land. He was a just 
man at heart. Hearing that Buchanan was about to rec- 
ommend the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton 
constitution, he declared that he would oppose the meas- 
ure unless the constitution was first submitted to an honest 
vote of the people of Kansas. 

The President was displeased at this attitude of Douglas, 
and the two were estranged, never to be reconciled. Bu- 
chanan, in February, 1858, recommended that Kansas be 
admitted as a slave state under the Lecompton constitu- 
tion. Douglas opposed the bill in Congress and it was 
lost. Kansas entered the Union three years later as a 
free state. Douglas, by his noble stand for justice to the 
people of Kansas, won back much of the popularity in the 
North that he had lost a few years before. 

Assault upon Sumner. — While Kansas was in the throes 
of civil war, there were exciting times in Congress. The 
debates were fierce and acrimonious. In 1856 when Senator 
Charles Sumner was making a notable speech on " The 
Crime against Kansas," he went out of his way to abuse 
certain senators whom he did not like, especially Senator 
Butler of South Carolina. Two days later Preston Brooks, 
a member of the House and a relative of Butler, assaulted 
Mr. Sumner with a cane, beating him into insensibility. 
Sumner was so badly injured that he did not fully recover 
his health for four years. The fact that Brooks was 



JOHN BROWN RAID 



323 



applauded as a hero throughout the South and was de- 
nounced in the North as a coward and a thug revealed 
the ever widening gulf between the North and the South. 
Still more was this gulf revealed by the attitude of the two 




John Brown 

sections toward an exciting occurrence of 1859, known as 
the 

John Brown Raid. — John Brown was a fanatical anti- 
slavery worker. He believed that slavery should be abol- 
ished by violence and was impractical enough to attempt 
the task almost single-handed. Brown was in the midst 
of the border warfare in Kansas, after which he went east 



324 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and began the undertaking for which he is remembered in 
history. 

Collecting about twenty men as companions, several 
of whom were his own sons, Brown made a night attack 
on Harper's Ferry, Virginia, overpowered the guard, and 
took possession of the United States arsenal of that place. 
His object was to rouse the slaves to insurrection, arm 
them from the government stores, and lead them to free- 
dom by force. The news of the attack was greatly ex- 
aggerated when first flashed over the country, and it caused 
intense excitement. 

Brown had indeed seized the arsenal, but the slaves had 
not risen against their masters as he believed they would. 
Troops were sent to capture Brown, but he and his Kttle 
band fought fiercely, thousands of shots being exchanged. 
Several of his party, including two of his sons, were 
killed. John Brown was captured, was tried in the Vir- 
ginia courts for murder, and was condemned and executed. 

Many at the North applauded Brown as a hero and a 
martyr. At the South he was denounced as the blackest 
of criminals. The truth lay between the two. Brown 
was a sincere man at heart and his motives no doubt w^ere 
good, but his judgment was sadly distorted. On the sub- 
ject of slavery he was probably insane. 

Lincoln-Douglas Debates; Election of i860 

Stephen A. Douglas, as we have noticed, had been for 
years one of the most conspicuous figures in public life. 
His second term in the Senate was drawing to a close and 
the legislature to be elected in Illinois in 1858 must choose 
his successor. His break with President Buchanan led 
some of the leading Republicans of the East to advocate 



SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES 325 

his reelection, in the hope that it would redound to Re- 
publican advantage. But the Republicans of Illinois 
refused to support him. They produced their own 
candidate in the person of Abraham Lincoln. This action 
brought on the most famous joint debate in American 
annals. 

These two men had much in common. Both had begun 
life without^^friends, influence, or money ; both were honest, 
courteous, companionable, and ambitious to rise in public 
life. They had served together in the Illinois legislature, 
and had long been personal though never political friends. 
But the contrast is still more notable. Douglas was low in 
stature, graceful and polished in manners ; Lincoln was 
tall, rather awkward, and uncultured. Douglas had a deep, 
musical voice and every grace of the finished orator, but 
his logic was faulty ; Lincoln was wanting in the graces of 
the polished orator, but his logic was keen, incisive and 
unanswerable. 

These two rival candidates for the Senate met in seven 
different Illinois towns, and spoke from the same platform 
to the same people.^ It was Lincoln who made the chal- 
lenge. It was a daring thing to do, for Douglas was the 
prince of public speakers, the readiest debater in the United 
States senate. But Lincoln had little to lose. He was 
scarcely known beyond the bounds of Illinois, while the 
fame of Douglas was national. There was but one great 
question to be discussed. 

Slavery in the Territories. — As the debates progressed 
the speakers propounded questions to each other, to be 
answered publicly. Douglas began this and by so doing 
set a trap for himself from which there was no escape. 
Lincoln asked the simple question, if the people of a 

\The debate began August 24, and ended October 15. 



326 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

territory had the right to vote on the subject of slavery 
within the bounds of the territory. 

Here it must be explained that the Kansas-Nebraska bill 




Abraham Linxoln 

was understood differently by the Northern and Southern 
Democrats. Those of the North declared that the people 
of a territory had a right to decide whether or not slavery 



THE Df:MOCRATIC CONVENTION 327 

should exist within the bounds of the territory ; at the 
South it was declared that no such right existed, that Con- 
gress must protect slavery in a territory until it is ready to 
become a state. 

Douglas was again an aspirant for the presidency, and 
if he answered this question in accordance with the North- 
ern view, he would offend the South. If he took the other 
side, he would make many enemies in the North. Douglas 
answered in accordance with the Northern view. He won 
the senatorship, but offended the South, and two years 
later that section refused to support him as a presidential 
candidate. 

Election of i860 

The Democratic Convention. — There was deep and 
deadly strife between the two great sections of the Demo- 
cratic party at the approach of this momentous election. 
The convention met at Charleston, South Carolma. Douglas 
had re-won his popularity in the North, and was the one and 
only choice of that section ; but he had alienated the South 
chiefly by his answer to Lincoln's incisive question in 
Illinois, The South not only refused to accept Douglas; 
it also demanded that the platform pronounce for the 
Southern view concerning slavery in the territories. To 
this the North could not agree, and the convention broke 
up in disorder, to meet some weeks later in Baltimore. 
When the convention reassembled the two factions could 
agree no better, and they parted company. The Northern 
delegates nominated Douglas, and those from the South, 
having withdrawn from the convention, nominated John 
C. Breckenridge of Kentucky, who was at the time Vice 
President. Thus, the last bond of union between the North 
and the South — the Democratic party — was severed. 



328 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Republican Convention met in Chicago in June. 
The two most conspicuous candidates for the nomination 
were William H. Seward of New York and Abraham Lincoln 
of Illinois. On the third ballot Lincoln was nominated and 
Hannibal Hamlin of Maine was chosen for second place. 

The Campaign was one of vast importance and the one 
great issue was the question of slavery in the territories. 




Election Chart, i860 



On this question the respective positions of the three 
parties were as follows : — 

1. The Republicans took the ground that slavery was 
an evil, and Congress should prohibit it in the territories. 

2. The Breckenridge Democrats declared that, as slaves 
are property recognized by the Constitution, Congress is 
bound to protect it in the territories. 

3. The Douglas Democrats took the middle ground, that 



THE RIGHT OF A STATE TO SECEDE 329 

the people of a territory should decide about slavery within 
its bounds, and that Congress should neither protect nor 
prohibit it. 

A fourth party in the field nominated John Bell for 
President and Edward Everett for Vice President. This 
party ignored the great issue of the time, and pronounced 
for '' The Constitution, the Union, and the enforcement of 
the laws." 

The election came on November 6, and Lincoln carried 
all the Northern states, except New Jersey, which gave 
him but four of her seven electoral votes. He received 
one hundred and eighty votes in the electoral college, while 
one hundred and fifty-two were enough to elect. No elec- 
tion since that of Jefferson in 1800 had meant so much to 
the future of the country. The meaning was that the 
people of the nation had pronounced slavery an evil, and 
that it should encroach no further on free soil. 

Secession 

During the campaign threats of secession from the 
Union, in case of Lincoln's election, were freely made in 
the South. Such threats had often been made before at the 
North as well as the South, and few took them seriously. 
But in this case the South was in deep, deadly earnest and 
as soon as the election of Lincoln was known, preparations 
were made to take the fatal step. 

The right of a state to secede of its own motion was 
generally believed in at the South and this right was based 
on the ground that the states were sovereign and that each 
had the legal power to withdraw at will from the com- 
pact by which the Union had been formed. 

It was not a belief in state rights or state sovereignty, 
however, that brought about secession and war; it was 



330 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

slavery and nothing else. The great events that pointed 
toward war — the Kansas-Nebraska agitation, the Dred 
Scott decision, the John Brown raid, and the like — were 
all slavery questions. 

Secession of South Carolina. — The first of the South- 
ern states to take the momentous step was South Carolina. 
A convention composed of the best men of the state met 
at Charleston and decided that the union between that state 
and the United States of America was dissolved. It then 
issued an address to the other slave states urging them to 
leave the Union and join with her in forming a Southern 
Confederacy. The people of the state approved the action 
of the convention almost unanimously, and there is not a 
doubt of their sincerity. They believed that they would 
be better off out of the Union than in it, and they believed 
in the right of secession. 

By the first of February, 1861, six other states, follow- 
ing the lead of South Carohna, had seceded from the 
Union. These were Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, 
Louisiana, and Texas. 

The Confederate States of America; Buchanan's Attitude. 
— These seven seceding states, which comprised the great 
cotton belt of the South, met in convention at Montgomery, 
Alabama, on February 4, and formed a government which 
they styled the Confederate States of America. In the 
following months four other states seceded and joined the 
Confederacy. These were Virginia, North Carolina, 
Tennessee, and Arkansas. The capital of the Confederacy 
was later moved to Richmond, Virginia. 

For President the South chose Jefferson Davis, whom we 
have met in the Mexican War, in the United States Senate, 
and in the Cabinet of Pierce. Alexander H. Stephens 
was chosen Vice President. The election of both was at 



first provisional, but at a later election both were chosen 

for a full term of six years. A constitution modeled to 

some extent after that 

of the United States 

was adopted by the 

Confederacy. 

President Buchanan 
was at loss to know how 
to deal with this great 
question. In a message 
he declared that neither 
the President nor Con- 
gress had the power to 
prevent secession. But 
a few weeks later (Janu- 
ary 8, 1 86 1 ) he wrote 
another message in 
which he declared that 
it was the duty of the 
President to collect the 
revenue and to protect 
public property in the 

seceded states, and to use force in so doing if necessary. 
He sent the Star of tJic West, a small vessel, to relieve the 
garrison at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, but the 
vessel was fired on and failed to make a landing. 

In the North there was great excitement among the 
people on account of secession in the South, and thousands 
of men regretted having voted for Lihcoln. They preferred 
the old regime to disunion or civil war. 

A Peace Congress, called by Virginia and presided over 
by former President John Tyler, met in Washington in 
February, but its efforts came to nothing. 




Il-.KI'KKSON DW'IS 



332 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

In Congress both House and Senate labored most of the 
winter to avert the impending calamity. An amendment 
to the Constitution was proposed and it passed both houses 
but failed of ratification by the requisite number of states. 
It forbade Congress or the people to molest slavery in 
future in any state where it existed, without the consent 
of that state. Thus it would have made slavery perpetual 
by entrenching it in the organic law of the land. The ob- 
ject was to conciliate the South. 

But the seceding states rushed madly on and their 
representatives gradually withdrew from Congress. Forts 
and other public property in the South to the value of 
$30,000,000 were seized by the Confederate government. 
Every index pointed to permanent disunion or dreadful civil 
war and the lovers of peace looked with dismay on the 
rushing torrent of events. 

Inauguration of Lincoln. — The time was at hand for the 
installation of the new President. Mr. Lincoln entered 
the capital by night and by stealth for fear of the assassin's 
bullet. On the 4th of March he stood before a vast 
multitude and outlined the policy of the nation. Of all 
men in the country he alone must decide if there would 
be permanent disunion or war. Never before and never 
since has a word fallen from a President's lips so eagerly 
awaited by the millions as was this inaugural address of 
Abraham Lincoln. 

The address was very moderate in its tone. The speaker 
declared that he had no purpose to interfere with slavery 
where it existed, that he was wiUing to abide by the Fugi- 
tive Slave Law, and even gave his approval of the unchange- 
able amendment to the Constitution making slavery 
perpetual in the United States. 

At the same time he declared that no state could lawfully 



FORT SUMTER 333 

secede from the Union, that he would enforce the laws in 
all the states, and that the Union would defend and main- 
tain itself. The meaning of this was as clear as daylight: 
if the seceding states refused to return, there would be war. 
" The ills you fly from," said the speaker, *' have no exist- 
ence. In your hands . . . and not in mine, is the mo- 
mentous issue of civil war. . . You can have no oath 
registered in heaven to destroy this government ; while I 
shall have the most solemn one to preserve, protect, and 
defend it." 

The two strongest men in Lincoln's first Cabinet were 
WiUiam H. Seward, secretary of state, and Salmon P. Chase 
of Ohio, secretary of the treasury. The Cabinet was not 
harmonious on the great question before the country, and 
it is a notable fact that no member of the Cabinet had yet 
learned to trust the judgment of this untutored President 
from the West. They all had yet to learn that Lincoln 
was their master. 

Fort Sumter. — For some weeks after the inauguration 
Mr. Lincoln followed the policy of Buchanan ; he waited. 
It was clear now that there would be war, and each side 
waited for the other to strike the first blow. The garrison 
at Fort Sumter, in the Charleston Harbor, commanded by 
Major Robert Anderson, was running low of provisions, 
and when President Lincoln decided to supply the fort, 
the Confederates determined to fire on it and capture it. 

On the morning of April 12, 1861, General P. G. T. 
Beauregard, the Confederate commander at Charleston, 
sent word to Major Anderson that he would open fire in 
an hour, and at the appointed moment a shrieking shell 
announced to the world that the day of compromise was 
past and that the most stupendous tragedy in modern 
history was begun. 



334 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Immediately fifty cannon poured their shot into the 
doomed fort. The fire was returned with vigor ; but at 
length the air became so stifling that the men in the fort 
lay on their faces and breathed through wet cloths. 
Thirty-four hours the bombardment continued, without 
loss of life, when the fort surrendered and passed into the 
hands of the Confederacy. 




BOMHARDMRNT OF FORT SUMTER 



The effect of the firing of Fort Sumter was magical 
throughout the North. Millions who had hesitated were 
now ready to decide for the Union. Two days after the 
fall of Sumter President Lincoln issued a call for seventy- 
five thousand men and the response was hearty from 
every part of the free states. Men forgot their party 
differences and rushed to arms to save the Union. In the 
South the effect of the fall of Sumter was similar to that of 



SUMMARY 335 

the North. The Southern people saw by Lincohi's call to 
arms that he meant to coerce the seceding states. This 
awakened them to resistance, and it was in the following 
weeks that the last four of the Confederate states seceded 
from the Union — Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and 
Tennessee. The people of Virginia now seized the United 
States arsenal at Harper's Ferry and the Navy Yard near 
Norfolk, the value of which was $10,000,000. The seizures 
of the Confederacy now reached the grand total of 
$40,000,000. 

su:viMARY 

In the election of 1856 James Buchanan defeated John C. Fremont, 
the first Republican candidate for President. 

The administration of Buchanan is especially remembered for tlie 
Dr'ed Scott decision, the John Trown raid, the Lincoln-Douglas debate?, 
and the troubles in Kansas. 

The Dred Scott decision, by Chief Justice Taney, left Dred Scott in 
slavery and pronounced the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, 
declaring also that free negroes could not become citizens, and that 
Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories. 

The struggle in Kansas between the antislavery and proslavery 
parties continued for some years and was marked by much violence. 

John Brown made an attack on Harper's Ferry (1859), seized the 
arsenal, but was captured and executed. 

The Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858) attracted wide attention. 
Douglas was reelected to the Senate. 

The election of i860 was one of great importance. The Democratic 
party split in twain. The Northern Democrats nominated Douglas, and 
the Southern nominated John C. Breckenridge. The chief issue was 
slavery in the territories. Lincoln was elected by a plurality of the 
popular vote and a majority in the electoral college. 

South Carolina then seceded (December 20, i860), and was followed 
by six other states by February i, 1861. These were joined in the 
spring by four other states. The seceding states then set up a govern- 
ment and called it The Confederate States of America, elected Jeiferson 
Davis President, and adopted a Constitution. 

President Buchanan refrained from using force against the seceding 



336 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

states. Abraham Lincoln, inaugurated on March 4, followed Buchan- 
an's policy until the firing on Fort Sumter (April 12), after which he 
called for seventy-five thousand men to put down the insurrection. 

NOTE 

Boyhood of Lincoln. — In a miserable log hut near Hodgensville, Kentucky, 
lived Thomas Lincoln and his wife Nancy. In this hovel, on the 12th of February, 
1809, their second child, a boy, was born and they called him Abraham, after his 
grandfather, a frontiersman who had been a friend of Daniel Boone and who was 
killed by the Indians in 1784. Thomas Lincoln could not read, but his wife had 
some education, and before Abraham was five years old she had taught him to read. 
When the boy was eight years old the family moved to Spencer County, Indiana, 
and took up their abode in the wilderness. The first winter was spent in a shed 
made of poles and covered with leaves and branches of trees. Meantime Mr. 
Lincoln and Abraham built a log house and cleared a small piece of land. The 
exposure had broken the health of Mrs. Lincoln and soon after they had moved 
into the new house there came to Abraham Lincoln the greatest sorrow that can 
come into a boy's life — the death of his mother. A few years later Mr. Lincoln 
married a widow with several children and the double family spent ten years in^the 
log house. The neighbors joined together and built a little log schoolhouse and 
in this Abraham attended school a month or two every winter — about ten months 
in all. 

He was a diligent reader when he could get books. Most of his reading was 
from the Bible and Pilgrim's Progress, until one day when he was about fourteen 
he borrowed a Life of Washington from a neighbor. He walked slowly and read 
all the way home, then he sat by a log fire and read till bedtime. On going to bed 
he took the book with him and read by the light of a piece of candle till it was, 
burned out, after which he put the book in a crev.ice in the wall. A rainstorm came 
up that night and the book was wet through and through. Sadly he carried it 
to the owner and told of the matter, offering to pay for the book in labor. 
The neighbor said: " Well, Abe, I won't be hard on you, if you'll shuck corn for 
me three days, you may have the book." "Abe" was delighted at the prospect 
of owning a book even though a soiled one, and three days later it was paid for. 
He went to hear every preacher or stump speaker that came to the town of Gentry- 
ville, near which he lived. On one occasion he walked fifteen miles to hear a trial 
in court. When one of the lawyers finished his speech, this tall, barefoot boy, in 
his buckskin breeches, all too short, and his squirrel-skin cap in his hand, walked 
across the court room to shake hands with the lawyer and say that the speech was 
the best he had ever heard. At the age of nineteen Lincoln was full grown. He 
was six feet four inches in height. He could run faster and jump farther than 
any of his companions. When Lincoln was twenty-one, the family moved to Illinois, 
making the journey in a huge wagon drawn by four yoke of oxen. In Illinois 
Lincoln was engaged in various pursuits. At different times he was farmer, rail- 
splitter, surveyor, storekeeper, boatman, and village postmaster. Not until he was 
nearly thirty years old did he become a lawyer. 



CHAPTER XX 
THE CIVIL WAR TO GETTYSBURG 

After the fall of Fort Sumter it was plain to the world 
that there would be war between the two great sections of 
our country. For many years there had been ceaseless 
quarrehng between them ; now there was to be an appeal 
to the sword, with all its baleful results. 

Comparison between the North and the South. — The 
North, including the border slave states, which did not 
secede, was composed of twenty-three states, with over 
twenty-two million people ; the South was composed of 
eleven states, with a population of nearly nine million, 
about four million of whom were slaves. 

The slave states were geographically divided. Four of 
them, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, 
refused to secede. The people of western Virginia also 
opposed secession and in 1863 organized the new state of 
West Virginia. In eastern Tennessee the mountaineers 
remained true to the Union. But aside from these excep- 
tions the South was remarkable for its unanimity and the 
fidelity of its people to the Confederate cause. 

The North, after the attack on Fort Sumter, arose as 
one man to defend the Union ; but as the war progressed 
partisanship again arose to the surface and President 
Lincoln was often handicapped for want of hearty support. 

One great advantage of the South over the North lay in 
its better trained men. A large class in that section were 
z 337 



338 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

familiar with the chase, they were good horsemen and 
good marksmen and they made good soldiers. No such 
class could be found at the North ; but after the first year, 
when the Union soldiers became drilled in the field, this 
difference disappeared. 

The advantages of the North, however, were greater 
than those of the South. First, it had more men and 
more money. The proportion of men was about as five 
to two, while the North was immeasurably richer than the 
South. 

A most notable advantage of the North over the South 
lay in the fact that it enjoyed foreign relations and the 
South did not. On the 19th of April President Lin- 
coln issued his proclamation blockading the southern coast. 
Our navy was insignificant and there could be no real 
blockade at first ; but the shipyards were kept in operation 
day and night, many merchant vessels were turned into 
ships of war, and before the end of the war every South- 
ern port was closed to the outside world. The South was 
in the direst need of guns, ammunition, and clothing, but 
could not purchase from abroad owing to the blockade. 
Great stacks of cotton, piled along the seacoast, could be 
bought for four cents a pound, while it was worth $2.50 at 
Liverpool. A ton of salt worth $7 in the West Indies, 
sold for ^1700 in gold at Richmond- — all on account of 
the blockade and the want of foreign relations. 

The North might have dispensed with foreign relations 
altogether and yet have won in the great struggle. This 
brings us to the chief advantage of the North over the 
South — its ability to manufacture its own materials. 
Every Union soldier could have been fed from the north- 
ern farms, clothed from the Northern mills, and equipped 
from the Northern foundries. The South was an agricul- 



THE BORDER STATES 339 

tural region. It had purchased its manufactured articles 
from the North or from abroad, but this trade was now- 
shut off. Slave labor was incapable of manufacturing, 
and skilled laborers would not settle in the South and 
work among slaves. Nor could the South now turn to 
manufacturing ; its men of brains were in the armies. 
The great handicap of the Confederacy, therefore, was 
caused by its isolation through the blockade and its ina- 
bility to engage in manufacturing. 

The Border States. — President Lincoln exercised the 
greatest tact in his efforts to prevent the seceding of the 
four border states — Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and 
Missouri. A wave of the disunion sentiment swept over 
Maryland during the fateful April, 1861. On the 19th 
the troops from Massachusetts, passing through Baltimore, 
were attacked by a mob and several on both sides were 
killed. This was the first bloodshed of the Civil War. 
Maryland at length decided to remain in the Union, but 
many of her citizens entered the armies of the South, 
though a greater number fought on the side of the Union. 

In Kentucky the governor was a secessionist, but the 
legislature and a large majority of the people were unwill- 
ing to abandon the old flag, and the state remained in the 
Union. In Missouri there was a fierce struggle. The 
governor and many members of the legislature were for 
secession, but when the people were called to vote on the 
great question, they decided by a large majority against 
secession. 

Opening of HosTii^ixifes 

The early spring months of 1861 witnessed the marshal- 
ing of armies and the preparation for war by both sides 
on a large scale. Before the end of May fifty thousand 



340 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Union troops were gathered about Washington. The 
Confederate army lay along the northern borders of Vir- 
ginia. Both were inactive for some weeks and meantime 
hostilities began in western Virginia, which became the 
first battle ground of the war. A young army officer, 
George B. McClellan, became the first hero of the war, 
except Major Anderson of Fort Sumter fame. With a 
small army he drove the enemy out of western Virginia 
in a short, vigorous campaign. The people of that sec- 
tion then organized a new state government composed of 
about forty counties of old Virginia, called it West Vir- 
ginia, and sought admission to the Union. The new state 
was admitted in 1863. 

Bull Run ; Wilson's Creek. — The first great battle of the 
war was the battle of Bull Run, fought in Virginia about 
thirty miles from Washington. The Union commander in 
this battle was General Irvin McDowell, though General 
Winfield Scott, who remained at Washington, was the 
commander in chief. Generals Beauregard and Joseph 
E. Johnston were in command of the Confederates. ^ 

The two armies joined in battle on the morning of July 
21, and for some hours the Northern army had every prom- 
ise of victory ; but the Southern troops, reenforced in the 
afternoon, dashed forward with great confidence, and 
the Northern men took fright, and started to retreat. The 
retreat became a rout ; many of the men threw down their 
arms and ran like frightened deer, some not stopping till 
they reached Washington. 

The South rejoiced greatly over its victory at Bull Run. 
The North was chagrined and disappointed and many 
denounced the soldiers as cowards. This was unjust. 
Most of the army was composed of raw militia, men who 

1 Beauregard and McDowell had been classmates at West Point. 



EXTRA SESSION OF CONGRESS 341 

knew little of the serious business of war. They had sud- 
denly become panic-stricken and lost their heads through 
sudden fright. Such an experience might come to any 
body of militia. 

Missouri became the second battle ground of the war. 
The Union army in Missouri was commanded by General 
Nathaniel Lyon and the Confederate by General Sterling 
Price. The two met on the loth of August at Wil- 
son's Creek, near Springfield. Here again the Union 
army suffered a defeat and the brave commander Nathan- 
iel Lyon was among the slain. 

These two defeats in Virginia and Missouri were better 
than a victory to the North. They awakened the people 
to a sense of the magnitude of the task of saving the 
Union. The South, on the other hand, was misled by 
these early victories. Many believed that the war was 
over and that the South had been successful. 

Extra Session of Congress. — Mr. Lincoln called Con- 
gress to meet in extra session in the early summer to deal 
with the war situation. Of the twenty-two senators repre- 
senting the seceded states only one, Andrew Johnson of 
Tennessee, remained true to the Union. Among the 
strongest men in the Senate were Charles Sumner of 
Massachusetts and W. P. Fessenden of Maine. The leader 
of the House was Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania. 

The President in his message gave a clear account of 
the state of the country ; and emphasized the great impor- 
tance of saving the Union. ** This issue," he stated, ** em- 
braces more than the fate of the United States. It pre- 
sents to the whole family of man the question whether a 
constitutional republic or democracy — a government of 
the people by the same people — can or cannot maintain 
its territorial integrity against its own domestic foes 



342 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Must a government be too strong for the liberties of its 
own people, or too weak to maintain its own existence ? " 

Congress authorized the President to increase the navy 
and the regular army, and to call half a million volunteers 
into the field. It also provided for the finances by fixing 
an income tax, raising foreign duties, and by authorizing 
the borrowing of a large sum of money. After thus plac- 
ing the country on a war footing, Congress adjourned and 
left the President practical dictator. 

Early Naval Affairs 

The Trent Affair. — Never in our history were our rela- 
tions with Great Britain more cordial than at the opening 
of the Civil War ; but a few months later an episode on 
the sea came dangerously near causing war between the 
two nations. 

The Confederate government was very anxious to gain the 
recognition of the European powers. The English queen 
had recognized the belligerent rights of the South early in 
the conflict and English sympathy was largely with that 
section, chiefly because the want of Southern cotton 
would cripple the great cotton mills of England. In the 
autumn of 1861 President Davis sent James Mason and 
John SHdell to London in the hope that they might se- 
cure the desired recognition of the South. They escaped 
from Charleston Harbor to Havana and embarked from 
that port, November 7, 1 861, for England on the British 
mail steamer Trent. Next day the vessel was stopped at 
sea by Captain Charles Wilkes in command of the sloop 
San Jacinto. Against the protests of the English captain, 
Wilkes seized Mason and Slidell and carried them to Boston, 
where they were imprisoned at Fort Warren. 



ATLANTIC COAST EXPEDITIONS 343 

The people of the North rejoiced greatly at the capture, 
but the EngHsh flew into a passion, demanded the release 
of the prisoners, and began to prepare for war. The ma- 
jority of the people of the North were ready to fight Eng- 
land rather than give up the men, but President Lincoln 
wisely decided not to permit the affair to plunge us into 
another war. He released the captives and the EngHsh 
soon cooled down to a normal condition. 

Atlantic Coast Expeditions. — For some months after the 
battle at Wilson's Creek there was no important military 
movement ; but a few naval expeditions were not without 
interest. The blockade was not at first effective and to stop 
the career of the blockade runners was the object of these 
expeditions. The first was commanded by General B. F. 
Butler who with a small fleet sailed into Hatteras Inlet, on 
the coast of North CaroUna, in August, 1861, and within 
two days had captured two forts with their cannon and 
ammunition and seven hundred men. 

A far more formidable expedition was that of Gen- 
eral Ambrose Burnside, in January, 1862, to Roanoke Is- 
land. This island which lies between Albemarle and 
Pamlico sounds was well fortified; but Burnside gained 
possession of it, and the coast of North CaroUna was held 
by Union troops to the end of the war. 

Between these two expeditions, in point of time, another 
was sent to the coast of South Carolina, to Port Royal, 
below Charleston. It was commanded by Admiral S. F. 
Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman. This also was 
successful, and the blockade became effective almost from 
Virginia to Florida. These successes, after the defeats at 
Bull Run and Wilson's Creek, greatly revived the spirits 
of the people of the North. 

The most famous seafight in the war and the first battle 



344 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of ironclads in the history of naval warfare was that be- 
tween the Monitor and the Merrimac on March 9, 1862. 
The Meiriinac, a steam frigate turned by the Confeder- 
ates into an ironclad, was doing great damage to Ameri- 
can warships off Hampton Roads, when the Monitor 
arrived from the Brooklyn Navy Yard. 

The Mcnimac was described as a " huge, half-submerged 
crocodile." The Monitor, which was built by John Eric- 




The Battle between the "Monitor" and the "jMekrimac" 

son, the Swedish inventor, was scarcely one fourth as 
large as her antagonist. It was said to look like a 
** cheese box on a raft." The fight between them was 
fierce and continued for some hours ; but no lives were 
lost. The Merrimac was so disabled that soon afterward 
it was burned. 

This battle revolutionized naval warfare. From this 
time every European power began to reconstruct its 
navy on the basis of the ironclad. 



CAPTURE OF FORT DONELSON 



345 



Operations in the Mississippi Valley 

We must now transfer the scene to the great central 
valley of the continent. The twofold object of the Union 
armies in 1862 was to take Richmond, the Confederate 
capital, and to open the Mississippi River. The men of 
the West had a double reason for fighting against seces- 
sion. I. To save the river. They could not endure the 




thought of this great artery of trade, this their own majes- 
tic river, flowing for a thousand miles through a foreign 
land. 2. To save the Union because they loved it. 

Capture of Fort Donelson. — At the beginning of the 
year 1862 Kentucky was occupied by two or three armies 
of each side, the Confederates being commanded by Gen- 
eral Albert Sidney Johnston, and the Northern armies 
by General W. H. Halleck. Early in February General 



346 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Ulysses S. Grant led an army from Cairo to invest Fort 
Donelson, a Confederate stronghold on the Cumberland 
River. The fort was admirably situated on a plateau a 
hundred feet above the river. Grant's army partially 
surrounded the fort and opened battle, while Commodore 
Foote, with a fleet of gunboats, bombarded it from the 
river. After a terrific battle of two or three days General 
Buckner, who was then in command, asked for terms of 
surrendering the fort. Grant's well-known demand of 
** unconditional surrender " was complied with and Fort 
Donelson with its large army stores and fourteen thou- 
sa;nd men was surrendered to the Union army. Now for 
the first time the eyes of the country were centered on 
General Grant, who was wholly unknown before the war. 
Battle of Shiloh. — Less than two months after the fall 
of Fort Donelson occurred the great battle of Shiloh, or 
Pittsburg Landing.! The Confederate forces were gather- 
ing in great numbers at Corinth, in northern Mississippi, 
and Grant moved up the Tennessee River. The two 
armies were of about the same size, some forty thousand 
strong. They met at Pittsburg Landing on the 6th of 
April, and at the break of day the greatest battle ever 
yet fought in the western continent was begun. For 
two days the roar of the battle was tremendous. On the 
first day the Southern army had the advantage, but the 
Union army was reenforced during the night by the com- 
ing of General Buell from Nashville, and on the second 
day the Confederates were defeated and forced to retreat 
to Corinth. The Confederates also suffered a great loss 
in the death of their brave commander, Albert Sidney 
Johnston, who was among the slain. 

1 Pittsburg Landing was a landing for boats on the Tennessee River in south- 
ern Tennessee; Shiloh was a little log church about which^the battle raged. 



FARRAGUT CAPTURES NEW ORLEANS 



347 



At the same time that the battle of Shiloh was fought 
the Union armies gained another signal victory in the cap- 
ture of Island No. lo in the Mississippi River, by General 
Pope, and one month before this the North gained pos- 
session of a large part of Arkansas by defeating the 
enemy at the battle of Pea Ridge. 

This series of Union victories was effective in clearing 
Kentucky and most of Tennessee of the enemy, in secur- 
ing control of a large part of the Mississippi River, and in 
stimulating the North to greater efforts to preserve the 
Union. 

Farragut Captures New Orleans. — Of these victories 
in the valley of the great river the most important was 




CAPTURE OF- NEW ORLEAISTS 



B.iCo..S.T. 



the capture of New Orleans, the greatest seaport of the 
South, in April, 1862. David Glasgow Farragut was a 
native of Tennessee, but refused to go with the state of 
his birth on the subject of secession. Mr. Lincoln put 
him in command of the most important naval expedition 
of the war, the object of which was to open the mouth 
of the Mississippi and to capture New Orleans. The 



348 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

river was guarded by two powerful forts, Jackson and 
St. Philip, mounting one hundred and twenty-six heavy 
guns. These were passed by Farragut's fleet after a night 
battle of terrific grandeur. As the fleet approached the 
city the people were seized with panic ; ten thousand chil- 
dren ran screaming through the streets ; women sobbed 
and wailed ; the army that was expected to defend the 
city had fled. On the first day of May, 1862, the North- 
ern army took possession, and the flag of the Union again 
waved over the historic city of the Creoles. 

The Army of the Potomac 

The Union army in the East was known as the Army 
of the Potomac. Its first commander was General Scott, 
whom we have met before in the War of 18 12, in the 
Mexican War, and as candidate for President of the United 
States. But Scott was old ; he failed to grasp the magnitude 
of the situation and in November, 1861, he was retired and 
George B. McClellan appointed commander. The appoint- 
ment highly pleased the public ; McClellan was young, 
handsome, and well trained. He had won public favor by 
his short, brilliant campaign in western Virginia. 

The Peninsular Campaign. — After a sharp fight at Ball's 
Bluff in October, in which the Union army was defeated 
and Senator Baker of Oregon was killed, McClellan pre- 
pared to move against the enemy. But the army was 
greatly in need of organization and drilling, in which Mc- 
Clellan was a master. Weeks passed, and months, and 
McClellan was still drilling his army. At length he decided 
to move his troops to the " Peninsula," formed by the James 
and York rivers, two hundred miles from Washington. 
This decision caused further delay and the public began to 



THE SEVEN DAYS' FIGHT BEFORE RICHMOND 349 

lose patience. The moving of such an army — one hundred 
and twenty-one thousand men and fifteen thousand horses and 
mules — required more time ; but at last, in the early spring- 
of 1862, McClellan had reached the Peninsulaand was ready 
to approach Richmond. But the Confederates blocked his 
way and on May 5, the battle of Williamsburg was fought. 
After this battle McClellan pushed on, and on the last day 
of the month encountered the enemy at Fair Oaks, or 
Seven Pines, where a greater battle took place. In this 
battle the Confederates were pressed back and their com- 
mander, Joseph E. Johnston, was severely wounded. 

The Seven Days' Fight before Richmond. — The wounding 
of Johnston occasioned the appointing of Robert E. Lee as 
the Southern commander. Lee was the son of ** Light 
Horse Harry " Lee of Revolutionary fame. He was a 
man of noble impulses and of sincere Hfe, and his name 
still inspires the highest respect in every part of the 
country. Lee now called Thomas J. Jackson, who had, at 
the battle of Bull Run, received the name " Stonewall " 
Jackson, to join him with another army. 

The first of the seven days' battles was fought at 
Mechanicsville on June 26. Lee suffered a defeat because 
he had unwisely divided his army. Next day a more for- 
midable battle was fought at Gaines Mills, the Army of the 
Potomac failing to win a victory from the same cause that 
had brought Lee defeat the day before — a divided army. 

But little fighting was done on the next two days and 
McClellan skillfully moved his base of supplies from the 
York to the bank of the James River. On the 30th 
occurred the battle of Frazier's Farm, but the next day was 
to bring the final battle of the campaign, at Malvern Hill, 
a low plateau on the north bank of the James. 

McClellan arranged his army in a semicircle on the hill 



350 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



with his batteries arranged in tier above tier. Lee made 
several desperate assaults, but was repulsed with great 
slaughter. 

The Union loss of men in the entire campaign was 
15,249; the Confederate loss was slightly above 19,000. 
McClellan was about to begin further operations in the 



SCEN^E OE W^AR. 

US' ^^iRGiisrii^ 

SCALE OF MILES 
10 20 40 




Borman i Co.. N.7. 



direction of Richmond when President Lincoln ordered 
him to return with his army to Washington. McClellan 
was criticised for being too slow, and the criticism was 
well grounded ; but President Lincoln was also at fault 
in interfering with the movements of the army. He should 
have given his general a free hand or asked his resignation. 
Pope's Campaign in Virginia. ~ General John Pope, who 
had won national fame by forcing the surrender of Island 



ANTIETAM 



351 



No. 10, was called East in the spring of 1862 and given 
command of an army in Virginia. After McClellan's 
recall from the peninsula a large part of his army was also 
given to Pope, who then began a campaign in the direction 
of the old battle ground at Bull Run. 

On August 9 a sharp battle was fought at Cedar Moun- 
tain between a detachment of Pope's army under General 
N. P. Banks and a division of Lee's army under Stonewall 
Jackson, neither gaining great advantage. Three weeks 
later, at the battle of Groveton, the main armies were en- 
gaged and the Confederates won a partial victory. Next 
day, August 30, a far greater battle took place and Lee won 
a far more decisive victory. This was almost on the same 
ground where the battle of Bull Run had been fought 
thirteen months before, and is known as the second battle 
of Bull Run. Two days later the Union army was again 
defeated, at Chantilly. 
Pope was now so dis- 
heartened at his failure 
that he led the army 
back to Washington 
and was relieved of his 
command. 

Antietam. — George 
B. McClellan was again 
called to take command 
of the Army of the 
Potomac, and he did so 
without a murmur con- 
cerning the past. Lee 
was so encouraged with 
his success that he decided on an immediate invasion of 
Maryland and in a short time his army was marching 




General McClellan 



352 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

toward Harper's Ferry. Lee's purpose was to win Mary- 
land, if possible, to secede and join the Confederacy, but 
he found little encouragement from the people of that 
state. McClellan followed Lee and the two armies met 
at South Mountain, near Harper's Ferry, where a con- 
siderable battle was fought. Among the wounded was R. 
B. Hayes, a future President of the United States. The 
Army of the Potomac won a victory, but failed to save 
Harper's P^erry, which was captured by Stonewall Jackson 
with its great stores and twelve thousand men. 

On the morning of the 17th of September the two 
armies, on the banks of Antietam Creek, began one of the 
hardest fought battles of the war. This has been pro- 
nounced the bloodiest single day's fighting in American 
history. All day the battle roared and at the coming of 
night about twelve thousand men of each side lay dead 
or wounded on the ground. McClellan intended to attack 
again, but Lee crossed the Potomac in the night and 
marched back to Virginia. Had Lee won at Antietam he 
would have struck Baltimore, or marched into Pennsylvania. 
The President urged McClellan to pursue Lee, but Mc- 
Clellan waited for some weeks, drilling his army and calling 
for supplies, whereupon Mr. Lincoln dismissed him from 
his command and appointed General Ambrose E. Burnside 
in his stead. 

Emancipation 

We have noticed that at first the war was a war to save 
the Union ; there was no intention to disturb slavery where 
it existed. But before a year had passed a great many 
people were persuaded that it would be unwise to leave the 
cause of the war undisturbed. Why not strike at slavery } 
Why leave it to disturb the peace of the country hereafter "^ 



STEPS TOWARD EMANCIPATION 353 

This was the sentiment of President Lincoln, but he was 
too wise to be rash, and many grew impatient at his delay. 

Steps toward Emancipation. — In August, 1861, Con- 
gress passed an act to confiscate property, including slaves, 
if used to aid in the rebellion against the government. In 
April, 1862, it passed an act abolishing slavery in the 
District of Columbia, with compensation. In June a law 
was passed prohibiting slavery in all territories of the 
United States. On July 17, 1862, a sweeping Confiscation 
Act was passed, by which all slaves who came within the 
protection of the government should be free, if their 
owners were in rebellion against the government. 

Meantime Mr. Lincoln was workino^ to have the g:overn- 
ment purchase and set free the slaves of the border states, 
and an act was passed by Congress to that end ; but as 
the border states refused to accept it, the project came to 
nothing. 

The Great Proclamation. — At length the President de- 
termined to issue a proclamation declaring the slaves free 
in the states that were fighting against the government. 
He waited for a Northern victory that his proclamation 
might seem a child of strength. The repulse of Lee at An- 
tietam furnished the occasion, and on the 22d of September 
Lincoln issued the great document declaring that on and 
after the first of the following January all slaves in the se- 
ceded states should be henceforth and forever free, except 
in the portions already occupied by the Union armies.^ 

What the Proclamation did. — The Emancipation Proc- 
lamation did not free the slaves, ro more than did the 
Declaration of Independence bring independence. What 
it did was to lay down the policy of the government; 
namely, if the North won in the great contest, slavery 

^ This proclamation did not affect slavery in the four border states. 
2 A 



354 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

should no longer exist in the country. It put the war on 
a twofold basis, making it a struggle against slavery as 
well as against secession. 

The right of the President to issue the proclamation has 
often been questioned. Ordinarily the President has no 
more right than any other citizen to interfere with private 
property. But a President has powers in time of war that 
he does not enjoy in time of peace. It is his right and 
-duty to use all the resources of the United States to put 
down an insurrection. Here was a great insurrection, and 
it was because of the slaves that raised the crops that fed 
the armies that fought against the government. As a 
war measure, therefore, Mr. Lincoln had a right to do 
what he did. His real object, however, was to compass 
the downfall of slavery, to give the black man a chance, 
and to save the country from distraction over this hated 
subject in the future. From this time forth the Northern 
armies had two things to fight for — to preserve the Union 
and to rid the country of the curse of slavery. 

The Confederate Government 

As noticed on a preceding page, the Confederate govern- 
ment was organized at Montgomery, Alabama, and was 
soon removed to Richmond, Virginia. The *' permanent 
Constitution " adopted was based for the most part on the 
Constitution of the United States. The presidential term 
was six years instead of four. President Davis chose a 
cabinet of six men, two of whom were able statesmen, 
Robert Toombs of Georgia and Judah P. Benjamin of 
Louisiana. Two congresses were elected for two years 
each. The only Speaker of the House was Thomas S. 
Bocock of Virginia. Most of the sessions were held in 



SUSPENSION OF THE WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS 355 

secret and most of the laws passed were previously ar- 
ranged by President Davis. 

There were many trained statesmen in the South, but 
they had little opportunity to display their power of self- 
government. The four years' existence of the Confederacy 
was one long death struggle with a stronger power. It 
defrayed the expenses of the war at first by the issue of 
bonds ; but as this became more difficult it issued paper 
money in large quantities, which fell in value till it became 
worthless. On the whole the struggle of the Confederacy 
for life was one of the most heroic in history. 

Politics in the North 

At the opening of the war the Democrats had responded 
heartily in support of the government ; but as time passed 
they began to criticise and oppose the administration. To 
do this is the chief business of the party out of power in 
the United States and usually it is a good wholesome 
thing for the country. 

Suspension of the Writ of Habeas Corpus. — The Consti- 
tution provides that in time of peace no one shall be 
arrested and imprisoned without a speedy trial ; but in 
time of war it is sometimes necessary to make exceptions 
to the rule. Such exception is called a suspension to writ 
of Habeas Corpus.^ Mr. Lincoln exercised this power 
freely during the war. Thousands of men were placed 
under arrest and detained indefinitely without trial for " dis- 
loyal practices," " discouraging enlistments," and the like. 

iThe Writ of Habeas Corpus (Latin for "you may have the body") is an 
order of a court to produce the body of one under arrest and to show why he 
is arrested. It had its origin in the Magna Charta of the year 1 21 5. 

The Writ of Habeas Corpus was also suspended in the South, and there too 
the suspension caused much opposition. 



356 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

This practice was viciously attacked by the Democrats, 
and, indeed, by many leading Republicans. The suspen- 
sion of the writ in the states not occupied by the armies 
awakened widespread opposition and no doubt did more 
harm than good to the administration. 

The Democrats found many other things to criticise, 
and many of them were displeased with the Emancipation 
Proclamation, declaring that they were fighting for the 
Union and not for the negro. So great was the opposition 
that the administration lost several of the great Northern 
states in the autumn elections of 1862. 

Draft Riots ; Vallandigham. — At the beginning of the 
war there were more volunteers than could be used. But 
the enthusiasm subsided, volunteering almost ceased, and 
the North followed the example of the South and resorted 
to the draft. In many places there was an outcry against 
the draft, and in New York and some other cities it broke 
into open riot. The city of New York was in the power 
of a howling mob for some days and was restored only by 
the coming of a body of troops. In the end the people 
submitted to the draft and the ranks of the armies were 
refilled by conscription.^ 

The most conspicuous opponent of the draft and of 
arbitrary arrests was Clement L. Vallandigham, a former 
member of Congress from Ohio and the Democratic candi- 
date for governor of that state in 1863. Mr. Vallandigham, 
in his speeches, denounced the administration unsparingly 
and at length officers were sent to his home, at Dayton, to 

^ There were many exemptions from the draft. Certain high officials of 
the government or of the state, the only son of a widow or of an aged father 
dependent on that son, the father of motherless children under twelve years 
of age, the residue of a family, which had two members in the service and 
others, were exempt from the draft. 



DOINGS OF CONGRESS 357 

arrest him. At two o'clock in the morning they burst the 
door of his bedchamber, arrested and carried him to Cin- 
cinnati. He was tried by a military court, found guilty of 
*' declaring disloyal sentiments," and sentenced to imprison- 
ment during the war. Mr. Lincoln changed the sentence 
to banishment to the Confederacy. His order was duly 
carried out ; but Mr. Vallandigham did not remain long 
in the South. He escaped in a blockade runner and 
made his way to Canada, and it was while there that he 
was nominated for governor. In his race for governor he 
was defeated by a large majority. The next year he re- 
turned to Ohio, but was not again molested. 

Doings of Congress. — During the war period Congress 
attracted less attention than usual because the eyes of the 
country were directed to the armies and to the President, 
whose " war powers " led him to intrench greatly on the 
powers of Congress. A few acts of Congress, however, 
aside from those necessary in carrying on the war, were of 
much importance. 

The Homestead Act of 1862 greatly aided in settling the 
great West. By this a settler who spent five years on a 
tract of one hundred and sixty acres could own it by pay- 
ing ^1.25 an acre. 

In 1863 our present national banking system was estab- 
lished by an act of Congress. By this act a company of 
five or more persons with a certain amount of capital could 
establish a bank. The banking company was then obliged 
to deposit government bonds in the United States treasury 
and was permitted to issue notes to the extent of ninety 
per cent of its bonds. The government held the bonds as 
security for the notes and redeemed the n5tes in case of 
the bank's failure. Thus, by laying its hand on the 
people's money, the government inspired confidence and 



358 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

secured loans more readily. The national banking system 
has grown in favor to this day. The father of it was 
Salmon P. Chase, secretary of the treasury. 

Many acts of Congress for carrying on the war were 
important at the time, but only temporary in their opera- 
tion. Among these were the Legal Tender Act of 1862, 
and the various laws for raising revenue. By these acts the 
war expenses were met, though not without an enormous 
increase in the public debt. 

Further Operations in the West 

We left General Grant at Pittsburg Landing after the 
great battle there in April, 1862. General W. H. Halleck 
who was in superior command took immediate control 
after the battle of Shiloh and led the army to Corinth, 
the Confederates fleeing at his approach. In the sum- 
mer Halleck was called to Washington and made com- 
mander of all the armies in the United States. Grant 
was thus left in command of this army ; but he did 
little for a year and pubhc attention was turned to 
Kentucky. 

Buell; Bragg; Rosecrans. — General Braxton Bragg be- 
came the commander of the Confederate army, and Presi- 
dent Davis, in the hope of winning Kentucky to secession, 
sent him to invade that state about the same time that Lee 
invaded Maryland. General Buell was sent after Bragg 
and the two raced across the state for Louisville. Buell 
won and entered the city (September, 1862), recruited his 
army, and determined to drive Bragg out of the state. This 
he succeeded In doing after a considerable battle at Perry- 
ville in October. But Buell, like McClellan, was thought 
too slow in his pursuit of the enemy and was replaced by 



GRANT INVESTS VICKSBURG 



359 



General William S. Rosecrans, who had but recently won 
a signal victory at Corinth. 

On the last day of the year 1862, the armies of Rose- 
crans and Bragg met at Miirfreesboro, or Stone River, and 
after two days of desperate fighting Bragg was obliged to 
retire. 

Meantime Grant and Sherman had gone down the 
Mississippi, which was now under Union control as far as 
Vicksburg. Their hope was to capture that city, but at 
this time they failed to do so. 

Vicksburg and Gettysburg 

After Admiral Farragut had captured New Orleans he 
sailed up the Mississippi past Vicksburg, and, seeing what 
a strategic point that city was, begged Halleck to send a 
portion of the army to occupy it. Had this been done the 
Union armies would have controlled the entire course of 
the great river and Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana w^ould 
have been cut off from the rest of the Confederacy. But 
Halleck's mind was too narrow to grasp the situation. 
He let the opportunity sHp ; the Confederates fortified 
Vicksburg, and to capture it cost the North a year of 
weary warfare and thousands of human lives. 

Grant invests Vicksburg. — General Grant, with General 
W. T. Sherman as his chief lieutenant, determined on the 
capture of the great Confederate stronghold, Vicksburg. 
But it was exceedingly difficult to approach the city by 
land or from the river. Various plans were attempted and 
given up and nearly a year passed before any effective 
work was done. 

At last Grant conceived the plan that succeeded ; namely, 
to run his supply boats past the batteries of the enemy. 



36o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



under the protection of Admiral Porter's ironclads, and to 
move the army below the city by the overland route. This 
was done in April, 1863. 

General Pemberton, who commanded at Vicksburg, came 
out to meet Grant and a battle was fought at Champion 
Hill, in which Pemberton lost all his artillery and four 
thousand men. A day later Grant won another victory 

at the Bis: Black 



River,^ and on 
May 18 his army 
was lodged on the 
heights around 
Vicksburg. 

After making 
a grand assault on 
May 22, in which 
he lost 3000 men 
and won nothing, 
Grant settled 
down to a regular 
siege of the city. 
For six weeks the 
men worked in 
the trenches, ap- 
proaching nearer 
and nearer the doomed city. Porter's fleet on the river 
bombarded the town day and night, the shrieking shells 
rising in grand parabolic curves. Many people of the city 
found safety by burrowing in the ground. The inhabitants 
were perishing with hunger when, on the 3d of July, the 
white flag was raised above the parapet, the city surren- 

1 Before meeting Pemberton, Grant had met and defeated an army in the 
interior of Mississippi and had captured Jackson, the capital of the state. 




THE ARMY OF THE POTOMAC 



361 



dered with its 172 cannon, 60,000 muskets, and 37,000 
soldiers, who became prisoners of war, 

A few days later Port Hudson, the last Confederate 
stronghold on the Mississippi, also surrendered, and in the 
vigorous language of Mr. Lincoln, "The Father of Waters 
rolled unvexed to the sea." 

The Army of the Potomac we left stunned and bleeding, 
but not defeated, after the great battle of Antietam, Gen- 
eral Burnside having suc- 
ceeded McClellan as its 
commander. Its number 
was swelled by reenforce- 
ments to 120,000 men. 
Lee's army was soon 
raised to about 80,000. 
These two great armies 
met in December, 1862, 
at Fredericksburg, about 
halfway between Wash- 
ington and Richmond. 

.Lee's army was well 
intrenched on the bank 
of the Rappahannock 
when Burnside decided to 
cross the river and make the attack. The decision was 
foolhardy, so well was Lee's army protected by breast- 
works. Division after division of the Union army dashed 
up the hill only to be driven back each time with dreadful 
slaughter. Six times, in the face of a murderous fire, the 
brave men charged in vain, until twelve thousand of their 
number lay dead or wounded on the slope. ^ 

Night ended the battle. Burnside was wild with anguish 

1 The Confederate loss was about 5000. 




362 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




at what he had done. *' Oh, those men, those men over 
there, I am thinking of them all the time," he wailed 
pointing to the dead and dying across the river. 

Soon after the carnage at Fredericksburg Burnside was 
relieved and General Joseph Hooker was appointed to 
command the army. Some months passed when the two 

armies met again, at 
Chancellorsville, in the 
early days of May. 
Here again, after three 
days of desperate fight- 
ing, the Army of the 
Potomac was defeated 
with a loss of 17,000 
men. Lee's loss was 
about 12,000. It was in 
this battle that the dash- 
ing Confederate leader, 
Stonewall Jackson, re- 
ceived his death wound. ^ 
The Battle of Gettys- 
burg. — So flushed with 
victory was Lee after 
Chancellorsville that he 
determined to invade the 
North. He moved into 
Pennsylvania. The 
Army of the Potomac, on the other hand, was depressed 
with defeats. For two years, under its many masters, it had 
met with one discouragement after another and few were 
the bright pages to cheer the heart of the war-brpken 

1 It is said that Jackson was shot by his own men. See note at end of this 
chapter. 



THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 



363 



soldier. But Hooker determined to follow Lee, and the 
two great armies met again, at the little town of Gettys- 
burg, in southern Pennsylvania, and here was to be fought 
the greatest battle that this western world has ever known. 
On the eve of the battle Hooker resigned his command 
and General George G. Meade was appointed to fill the 




Scene at Battle of Gettysburg 



place. The battle continued for three days, the first three 
days of July, 1863. On the first day the Union army was 
driven back and had the contest then ended, the usual 
story of defeat would have gone forth to the world. 
The army lost 10,000 men ; among these was General John 
F. Reynolds who fell dead early in the day with a sharp- 
shooter's bullet in his brain. 



364 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The feature of the second day was the terrific fight in a 
wheat field, since known as the Valley of Death. Here 
the two armies fought with desperate valor for hours and 
at evening thousands of men lay in heaps, dead and 
wounded, the blue and the gray commingled. 

The third day was marked by the famous Pickett's 
charge, preceded by some hours of the heaviest cannonad- 
ing ever heard on the American continent. About four 
o'clock in the afternoon General Pickett led 15,000 
Confederate troops in an assault on the Union center. 
His hope was to split the army of the Potomac in twain, 
and for a time it seemed that he would succeed. But the 
burst of cannon and the hail of musketry was so terrific 
that no army, however brave, could have stood against 
them. Pickett's men were cut down in great numbers ; 
many surrendered, and the remnant, blood-stained and 
weary, fled back to the Confederate lines whence they had 
started. The great battle was over, and Lee abandoned 
his project of invading the North and led his defeated 
army back to Virginia. 

The losses at Gettysburg were frightful, more than 
50,000 men — dead, wounded, and prisoners. 

The tide of war rose to its height at Gettysburg. At 
this time the cause of the South took a downward turn, not 
only here, but in the West, for it was at the very hour of 
Pickett's charge, that Grant and Pemberton, a thousand 
miles away, stood under an oak tree on the heights above 
the rolling Mississippi, and arranged for the surrender of 
Vicksburg. 

SUMMARY 

The fall of Fort Sumter removed all hope of compromise between 
the North and the South. 

The South was geographically divided ; four slave states did not 



SUMMARY 365 

secede, and the people of western Virginia and of eastern Tennessee 
opposed secession. 

The North was composed of twenty-three states, with 22,000,000 
population ; the South of eleven states, with 9,000,000 people. 

The South had the advantage of better trained men, and of fighting 
on their own soil. The advantages of the North were, more men, more 
money, foreign relations, and ability to manufacture. 

In April, 1861, Mr. Lincoln issued his proclamation blockading the 
Southern ports, which in time became very effective. 

The first great battle was at Bull Run, where the Union army was 
defeated. This defeat roused the North to greater effort. At Wilson's 
Creek in Missouri General Lyon was defeated and killed. 

Congress met in extra session in July, 1861, put the country on a 
war footing, and adjourned, leaving the President practically dictator. 

The naval expeditions down the Atlantic coast secured to the North 
the control of the coast almost from Virginia to Florida. 

In the spring of 1862 the operations in the Mississippi Valley resulted 
in the capture of Fort Donelson and Island No. 10, in the defeat of the 
Confederates at Pittsburg Landing, and the capture of New Orleans. 
Meantime McClellan was operating against Richmond from the penin- 
sula. He was recalled in June, soon after which Pope was defeated at 
Bull Run. McClellan was again put in command, and at Antietam 
he checked Lee's invasion of Maryland. 

Soon after the battle of Antietam President Lincoln issued his 
Emancipation Proclamation, which put the war on a twofold basis — as 
a war against slavery as well as against secession. 

The draft of 1863 caused riots in New York and other cities. Mr. 
Vallandigham of Ohio was arrested and sent into the Confederate 
lines, but escaped and fled to Canada. 

Congress passed the Homestead Act in 1862 and established our 
national banking system in 1863. 

In the Mississippi Valley Bragg led an army into Kentucky and was 
driven out by Buell. Rosecrans succeeded Buell and defeated Bragg at 
Stone River. The Army of the Potomac was defeated under Burnside 
at Fredericksburg and under Hooker at Chancellorsville. Lee then 
marched into Pennsylvania, but was repulsed at Gettysburg in a 
terrific three-days battle. At the same time Grant forced the sur- 
render of Vicksburg. These two events marked the turning point in 
the war. 



366 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

NOTE 

Lincoln and McClellan. — An endless controversy arose after the close of the 
peninsular campaign concerning the merits of the relations between President 
Lincoln and General McClellan. Many take the ground that McClellan was in- 
competent and should have been recalled sooner than he was. while others contend 
that the administration did not support the army properly, and actually desired 
McClellan 's downfall. There was merit and blame on each side. McClellan 
was utterly in the wrong in believing that Lincoln did not wish to sustain hitn* 
He was wrong also in overestimating the force of the enemy ; but he accepted 
the reports of his spies, who, some have believed, were in sympathy with the 
enemy, and purposely deceived him. The assertion of some that Lincoln, believ- 
ing that McClellan had aspirations to the presidency, was jealous of him and 
wished to degrade him, will seem absurd to any one who studies Lincoln's whole 
life. But Lincoln was at fault in urging McClellan to begin great operations 
in midwinter. He simply reflected the impatience of the great untrained public. 
His proclamation ordering the army to move on the 22d of February is pronounced 
by Ropes, one of our profoundest military critics, " a curious specimen of puerile 
impatience," as war orders and proclamations " will not make roads passable." 
McClellan was quite right in deciding not to move till spring, but he was wrong in 
ignoring public opinion. He should have made minor movements here and there, 
as he could easily have done, to quiet public feeling. Again, when he saw that 
there was a frantic fear that Washington would be captured, he should have done 
more than he did to allay it, though he did not share it. Lincoln was greatly handi- 
capped in two ways : first, his want of military training, and, it may be added, his 
commonplace native judgment in military matters; and second, his inability to 
extricate himself from the all-powerful political influence at the capital. Many 
of his appointments were based on political grounds. Here is aa example: 
McClellan urged (see " McClellan's Own Story," p. 226) that the defenses of 
Washington be put into the hands of one of the ablest men of the army ; but Lincoln 
appointed to this important post General Wadsworth, a politician wholly without 
military training or experience. The secret of tlie appointment is shown in a letter 
to McClellan from the secretary of war. " Wadsworth," wrote Stanton, " had been 
selected because it was necessary for political reasons to conciliate the agricultural 
interests of New York," and he declared that it was useless to discuss the matter, 
as in no event would the appointment be changed. No ill effects came of this ; 
but had a Confederate army attacked Washington the result might have been 
disastrous. Lincoln was a victim of this political monster, which, in our govern- 
ment, is so powerful that the strongest man cannot wholly prevail against it. — From 
Elson's History, p. 702. 

Stonewall Jackson. — In some respects this man was the most remarkable 
character brought into prominence by the Civil War. There is a glamour of 
romance around the name of Jackson. He was a graduate of West Point; but, 
disliking warfare, he resigned from the army and became a college professor and a 
teacher in a squalid negro Sunday School. He was rather slow-moving, silent, 
distant, had few friends, and was not generally popular. There was something 



STONEWALL JACKSON 367 

unfathomable in his nature, but no one dreamed that he was a genius. The war 
brought out his powers and proved him one of the greatest commanders of modern 
times. The popular notion that his attacks were impulsive and only accidentally 
successful was erroneous. His plans were well laid and almost faultless. Jackson 
was excessively religious, and his men said that when he remained long on his 
knees in his tent, they knew that a great battle was impending. Lee's estimate of 
Jackson is shown in a note sent him as he lay wounded. In this note Lee stated 
that he would have chosen for the good of the country to be disabled in Jackson's 
stead. Jackson died on May 10, and there was none to fill his place. During his 
last hours he seemed to have forgotten the great war. He lived now with his God 
and with his family, who could never forget the tender beauty of his final words, 
"Let us cross over the river and lie down amid the shade of the trees." — From 
Elson's History, p. 724. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE CIVIL WAR {continued) 

We have seen how the Army of the Potomac won a vic- 
tory at Gettysburg during the first days of July, 1863, and 
how Grant at the same time forced the surrender of Vicks- 
burg. This great double victory rendered it practically 
certain that the North would win in the mighty struggle, 
and that slavery would perish and the Union would not be 
divided. But the war was by no means over; the South 
was not ready to give up, and thousands of men were yet 
to be sacrificed. 

The Chattanooga Campaign 

Chickamauga. — The Confederates had lost an army at 
Vicksburg, but they had another western army, that under 
General Bragg, which had fought Rosecrans at Murfrees- 
boro in the early days of January. 

During the spring Rosecrans held his army ready to pre- 
vent Bragg from marching to the aid of Vicksburg. After 
the fall of that stronghold he moved southward as if to 
invade Georgia. Bragg followed and the two armies met 
on the banks of a mountain stream whose Indian name, 
Chickamauga, means the '' River of Death." Here was 
fought one of the greatest battles of the war. In the midst 
of the fight the Union army became divided and the whole 
right wing was swept from the field. Rosecrans himself 
was carried away in the mad rush. The left wing,' about 

368 



THE CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN 369 

twenty-five thousand men under General George H. Thomas, 
stood its ground. For six hours ahnost the whole Confed- 
erate army dashed against Thomas; but in vain. He stood 
his ground till night, at a cost of ten thousand men,^ and 
from this time he was known as the " Rock of Chickamauga." 

Chattanooga ; Lookout Mountain ; Missionary Ridge. — 
A few weeks after the battle of Chickamauga the Union 
army was hemmed in the town of Chattanooga and was in 
danger of starving, when General Grant was sent to the res- 
cue.^ A little later came Sherman with the army that had 
captured Vicksburg, and it was then decided to open battle 
on Bragg. 

Missionary Ridge lies south of Chattanooga and Look- 
out Mountain, a bold spur three thousand feet above the 
sea, rising from a great bend of the Tennessee River. 
Both the ridge and the mountain were occupied by Bragg's 
troops. General Joe Hooker, who had come from the East, 
was sent to capture Lookout Mountain. Up the rugged 
slopes he led his men and won a complete victory. The 
roar of cannon from the mountain top seemed to indicate 
a battle in the sky. During part of the engagement the 
mountain top was enveloped in mist, and it has been called 
the " Battle above the Clouds." 

Next day came the battle of Missionary Ridge. The 
Union soldiers rushed up the hill in the face of fifty boom- 
ing cannon and a galling fire of musketry, and gained pos- 
session of the ridge. Bragg then led his defeated army 
to Dalton, in northern Georgia, and settled down for the 
winter. 

Chattanooga was one of the four most important strong- 
holds in the South. Of the other three, Richmond, New 

1 The loss of the Confederates was even greater. 

■^ At this time Rosecrans was succeeded by Thomas. 

2 P. 



370 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Orleans, and Vicksburg, two were in the possession of the 
Northern armies. 

Commanders in Chief. — At the beginning of the war, the 
a^>-ed Winfield Scott was, next to the President, commander 
of all the armies of the United States. But Scott had 
long passed the zenith of his powers, and in the autumn of 
1862 he was retired on full pay and George B. McClellan 
was made commander in chief ; but he held the office less 
than a year. In July, 1862, William H. Halleck was 
appointed to fill the place. Halleck was not a strong 
commander, and though he filled the office till March, 
1864, the armies, east and west, did not work in harmony. 

After the capture of Vicksburg and the defeat of Bragg 
at Chattanooga the feeling throughout the North was that 
General U. S. Grant was the strongest commander in the 
country, and that he should be made commander in chief. 
Up to this time the grade of major general was the highest 
in the army; but in February, 1864, Congress revived the 
grade of lieutenant-general, hitherto held by George Wash- 
ington only.^ It was meant for Grant, and in March he 
went to Washington to receive his new honors. From 
this time to the end of the war Grant was commander in 
chief of all the armies of the United States. 



Grant in the Wilderness 

After the battles around Chattanooga, in November, 
1863, little fighting was done till the following spring. 
Meantime General Joseph E. Johnston had succeeded 

1 Winfield Scott was lieutenant general by brevet. The highest military 
title, "general," was not used until 1866, when it was conferred on Grant. 
Later it was conferred on Sherman, and after his death on Sheridan. These 
three alone in the United States have borne this title. 




General U. S. Grant 



372 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Bragg as Confederate commander in the West Grant, 
who had control of all the Union armies, decided to take 
charge of the Army of the Potomac against Lee, while he 
chose Sherman, his ablest subordinate, to command in the 
West. 

Battle of the Wilderness ; Spottsylvania. — On the 4th of 
May, 1864, Grant's army, numbering 150,000 men, crossed 
the Rapidan River in Virginia and entered a dreary region 
called the Wilderness. Next day, I.ee, whose army num- 
bered about half that of Grant, made an attack and for two 
days the battle roared with tremendous fury. On the sec- 
ond day the Union general, Wadsworth, was killed and 
General Longstreet, on the other side, was dangerously 
wounded. The Union loss was 17,000 men, the Confed- 
erate loss being probably 12,000. 

The battle of Spottsylvania even surpassed that of the 
Wilderness. It occurred on the loth and 12th of May, 
the armies resting on the nth. It was on the nth that 
Grant sent the dispatch to Washington that he would 
*' fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." 

No more terrific fighting was ever known in war than 
that of May 12. Not a tree or sapling between the two 
armies was left alive and standing. One tree two feet in 
diameter was cut down by musket balls. Had this battle 
continued another day it would have surpassed Gettysburg. 
The losses, about the same on each side, footed up the 
frightful total of 36,000 men. 

Cold Harbor ; Petersburg. — On the first days of June 
Lee took up a very strong position at Cold Harbor, near 
which the battle of Gaines Mills between Lee and Mc- 
Clellan had been fought two years before. Grant foolishly 
decided to attack Lee in this strong defense. He did so 
and in half an hour lost 12,000 men, while Lee's loss did 



THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY 373 

not reach 1000, This was the greatest mihtary mistake 
ever made by General Grant. 

Grant now decided to cross the James River and attack 
Petersburg. He did this and was repulsed with great 
loss. He then settled down to a siege and his army did little 
active field work until the following spring. This bloody, 
murderous campaign had lasted a month and had brought 
no special advantage to either side. The name of Grant 
lost much of its magic in the following months. Some 
even favored the recall of McClellan ; but Mr. Lincoln 
made no move to this end. 

The Shenandoah Valley. — Closely associated with this 
campaign was that of the Shenandoah Valley, 'led by 
General Philip H. Sheridan, whom 
Grant had selected for the purpose. 
Lee had sent Jubal A. Early, with 
15,000 veterans, to threaten Wash- 
ington. On July 10 and 11 Early 
was but few miles from the city and 
in sight of the Capitol dome. Pres- 
ident Lincoln was not in the least 
excited, but a vessel lay in the river, 
without his knowledge, to take him 
away in case the city should be 
captured. Union troops soon joined 
those already in Washington, whereupon Early turned 
up the valley and sent General McCausland into Penn- 
sylvania, who burned the town of Chambersburg. Sheri- 
dan was then sent against Early whom he defeated in 
a battle near Winchester and in another at Fisher's Hill. 

Early in October Sheridan began his famous raid down 
the Shenandoah Valley in which he destroyed everything 
that the enemy might use. He burned 2000 barns and 




Philip H. Sheridan 



374 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

70 mills filled with grain and drove before him 4000 
head of cattle. 

Early had followed Sheridan and one morning at Cedar 
Creek he fell on the Union army at break of day when the 
troops were sleeping and not expecting an attack. In a 
short time the Union men were defeated and fleeing for 
their lives. Sheridan was at that moment at Winchester, 
some miles away. He heard the cannonade and started 
on his famous ride to Cedar Creek.*^ Meeting his fleeing 
men, he urged them to halt, reform their lines, and turn 
against the enemy. The men threw up their hats and 
leaped and danced for joy at the return of their commander. 
They obeyed his orders and within a few hours won a com- 
plete victory, routing and almost destroying the army of 
Early ; and thus ended the war in the Shenandoah Valley. 

The Atlanta Campaign ; Mobile 

Atlanta was an important railroad center and base of 
military supplies in the heart of Georgia. When Grant 
took command of the Army of the Potomac, he planned for 
Sherman a campaign against Atlanta ; but to reach that 
city Sherman had to march through the enemy's country 
more than a hundred miles and to cope with a powerful 
army under Joseph E. Johnston, who had succeeded Bragg. 

From Chattanooga to Atlanta. — Sherman began his great 
march from Chattanooga on May 5, the day after Grant 
entered the Wilderness in Virginia. Johnston came out to 
meet Sherman and for some weeks there was heavy skir- 
mishing nearly every day, but no general battle. On June 
14 General Leonidas Polk, one of Johnston's ablest sub- 

^ It was this ride that inspired Thomas Buchanan Read's poem "Sheridan's 
Ride." 



FARRAGUT AT MOBILE 



375 



ordinates, was torn to pieces by a cannon ball.^ A few 
weeks later the Union army suffered a great loss in the 
death of General McPherson. The battle of Kenesaw 
Mountain was fought late in June and Sherman was 
defeated with a loss of 2000 men. 

On the 17th of July, Jefferson Davis made the serious 
blunder of dismissing Johnston and placing General 
John B. Hood at the head 
of the army. Hood was 
a fearless fighter ; but 
as a strategist he was 
far inferior to the mas- 
terly Johnston. As 
soon as Hood had con- 
trol of the army he 
offered Sherman battle 
in the open field and was 
twice defeated within 
the first week, and 
still again in the fol- 
lowing week. Seeing 
that he could not pos- 
sibly hold Atlanta, he 
escaped with his army 
on the night of Sep- 
tember I , and on 
the following day Sherman took possession of the city. 

Farragut at Mobile. — While Sherman was tightening his 
coils about Atlanta, and Sheridan was about to begin his 
raid in the Shenandoah Valley, Admiral Farragut was 

1 For twenty years before the war Polk was Episcopal bishop of Louisiana. 
As a youth he had graduated at West Point, but afterward devoted himself to 
the church. At the outbreak of the war he entered the Confederate service. 




376 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

planning the capture of Mobile. When nearly all the 
Southern ports were closed to the outside world, Mobile Bay 
was still open to blockade runners, and the government 
determined to close it. 

Farragut was chosen for the perilous task. With a 




Fakragut in Mobile Bay 

strong fleet he entered the bay and fought a desperate 
battle on August 5. Farragut had himself tied to the mast 
of his flagship that he might not fall to the deck if shot. 
Two forts had to be silenced and a Confederate fleet 
must be defeated. The fight was short and terrific.^ 

^ The Union vessel Tecumseh was sunk in this battle with 113 men on 
board. When the vessel was about to sink a remarkable incident occurred. 
There was a narrow ladder, the only possible means of escape. Captain 



THE RENOMINATION OF LINCOLN 377 

Farragut won the day and the port was closed to the 
world from that time to the end of the war. The city of 
Mobile, however, was held by the Confederates till April, 
1865, when it was captured by General Canby. 



The Presidential Election of 1864 

In the midst of the great war came a presidential election, 
and it was a relief to the people for a season to turn their 
eyes from the scenes of carnage to the familiar scene of 
the battle of the ballots. 

The Renomination of Lincoln. — With our present esti- 
mate of Lincoln it seems strange that in 1864 there was a 
great opposition to his renomination. Among his leading 
opponents were Horace Greeley, Henry Ward Beecher, 
William Cullen Bryant, and many members of Congress. 
This faction believed that Lincoln was too slow in his 
management of the war, and they preferred Chase, the 
secretary of the treasury, as their candidate. But the 
masses of the people had come to love Lincoln and to trust 
him, and when it was seen that his nomination was more 
than probable Chase withdrew. Lincoln was nominated 
with little opposition. Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was 
named for Vice President. The party name was changed 
from " Republican " to " Union," to accommodate the war 
Democrats who were acting with the party. 

Democratic Nomination; the Election. — The Democrats 
met late in August and nominated General McClellan. 

Craven, her commander, and his pilot met at the foot of this ladder. The 
pilot stepped aside that the captain might go up first ; but the captain said' 
" After you, pilot," and stepped back. The pilot then ran up the ladder to the 
deck, and was saved. But he was the last; the ship sank, and the chivalrous 
Captain Craven went down with his crew and was lost. 



3/8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The platform declared the war a failure and called for a 
convention of all the states with a view of arranging for 
peace on the basis of a restored Union. 

For many weeks up to this time there was a general 
belief that Lincoln would be defeated, but now the tide set 
in his favor. Vast numbers of Northern families from 
which a father, a son, or a brother was serving in the ranks 
or had filled a soldier's grave could not agree that the war 
was a failure. The Democratic call for a convention of all 
the states took no account of the fact that but a few months 
before this a peace conference had been held and Jefferson 
Davis had declared that he would never agree to peace 
except on the basis of a divided Union. 

In view of these facts Lincoln's star rose steadily till 
the election, when he again carried the country by a great 
majority. 

The result of the election, with the recent news from 
Mobile, from Atlanta, and from the Shenandoah Valley, 
gave the people of the North renewed hope for the restor- 
ation of the Union and the downfall of slavery. 

Final Work of the Armies 

Sherman's March to the Sea. — Sherman remained at 
Atlanta for several weeks, Hood having moved north- 
ward into Tennessee, when, on November 15, he started on 
his historic march " From Atlanta to the Sea." With sixty- 
two thousand men, sixty-five heavy guns, and twenty-five 
hundred wagons, each drawn by six mules, Sherman began 
his great march. The army made a swath from forty to 
sixty miles wide, destroying railroads and other property 
that might aid the enemy. The soldiers were ordered to 
spare private property, except what was needed for food, 








General W. T. Sherman 



380 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



and not to enter private houses ; but they did not always 
obey the order, and many innocent people were made to 
suffer. 

The army met with little opposition and by the middle 
of December it came in sight of the sea. The Confeder- 
ates fled from Savannah, and Sherman entered it on the 
2 1st of December. He then sent a dispatch to Presi- 




dent Lincoln, " I beg to present to you, as a Christmas 
gift, the city of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty 
heavy guns and twenty-five thousand bales of cotton," 
Thus the old historic city, which Oglethorpe had founded, 
where Pulaski had fallen, came again in the hands of the 
Federal government. 

Nashville. — General Hood, as we have noticed, had led 
the Confederate army back into Tennessee, and on De- 



FALL OF RICHMOND 381 

cember 15 he attacked a Union force at Nashville under 
General Thomas, the Rock of Chickamauga. Thomas 
was one of the ablest commanders of the war, and he 
proved it by the battle of Nashville. Hood was most 
thoroughly defeated, and the power of the Confederacy 
was now destroyed west of the Alleghany Mountains. 

Grant Before Petersburg. — General Grant had settled 
down to a siege of Petersburg, a strong fortification a few 
miles south of Richmond on the James, in the summer of 
1864. As the autumn and winter passed, the coils of his 
army were tightening about Richmond, the Confederate 
capital. In February, 1865, President Lincoln and Secre- 
tary Seward met Alexander H. Stephens, Vice President 
of the Confederacy, to treat for peace ; but the conference 
came to nothing. Early in March Lee informed President 
Davis that he could protect the capital but little longer. 
On April i, Sheridan won a battle at Five Forks, a few 
miles from Petersburg. 

Fall of Richmond. — On Sunday, April 2, Grant made 
a general attack which the Confederates met as only brave 
men could. But the odds against them were too great and 
before night twelve thousand of them were taken prisoners. 
On the same day, as Jefferson Davis sat in church, he re- 
ceived a telegram from Lee saying that Richmond must 
be evacuated that evening. Davis boarded a train for the 
South. 

As the news of the coming of the Union troops spread 
through the city the people became greatly excited. All 
social order was destroyed, and thousands of people ran 
through the streets, not knowing what to do. Nine ships 
building in the harbor were set on fire. The fire spread 
to the city and seven hundred houses were soon in flames. 
On April 3 the Union troops entered the city and next 



382 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

day, while the fires were still burning, President Lincoln 
visited it. 

Surrender of Lee. — General Lee made the utmost effort 
to escape with his army southward ; but at every turn he 
found Grant's army, which had almost surrounded his own. 
At length, on April 9, when escape was impossible and 
further resistance suicidal, Lee raised the white flag and 
surrendered his army to Grant. The two great commanders 
met at Appomattox Court House and arranged the terms of 
surrender. 

General Sherman, after his great march, did not long 
remain at Savannah. At the beginning of February he 
started northward through the Carolinas for the purpose 
of' joining Grant, and bringing the war to a close. Before 
this march began, however, the closing of the port of Wil- 
mington, North Carolina, and the capture of Fort Fisher, 
which guarded the harbor, was decided on. This was ac- 
complished in January. Wilmington was the last opening 
of the South to the outside world, and its capture completed 
the blockade proclaimed by Lincoln in April, 1861. 

As Sherman moved northward the Confederates aban- 
doned Charleston and Columbia, both of which were par- 
tially burned to the ground. When Sherman was almost 
ready to cooperate with Grant, he was confronted by John- 
ston who, after Hood's drastic defeat at Nashville, was 
again in command of the Southern army. But when John- 
ston heard that Lee had surrendered to Grant, he knew 
that his hour had also come. He sought Sherman and the 
two agreed on terms of surrender, April 26.^ Soon after 
this two small Confederate armies further west also sur- 

1 Johnston surrendered about thirty-seven thousand men. Lee had sur- 
rendered to Grant but twenty-eight thousand. Lee's army had been greatly 
reduced in the closing weeks by desertions and by captuies by Grant's army. 



DEATH OF PRESIDENT LIiNCOLN 383 

rendered — and the great tragedy of the Civil War was at 
an end. 

Death of President Lincoln. — There is no more atrocious 
crime in American annals than the assassination of Presi- 
dent Lincoln, which occurred on April 14, 1865. After a 
day of toil the President sought diversion by attending the 
theater, and while sitting in a private box, he was shot 
through the brain by John Wilkes Booth, an actor. The 
audience was stupefied with the appalling tragedy and the 
assassin, brandishing a dagger, cried " Sic Semper Tynm- 
Ills,'' ^ ran down a back stair, and made his escape. 

At the same time Lewis Payne entered the house of Mr. 
Seward, and stabbed the secretary several times, and made 
his escape. A plot had been formed to kill the leading 
men in the government to avenge the defeat of the South. 
General Grant had escaped by going to Baltimore on the 
afternoon of the 14th. 

When the President was shot, his head fell forward, but 
he uttered no sound. He was carried to a house across 
the street where, without recovering consciousness, he died 
early the next morning. The people mourned their great 
dead as never before in American history. The funeral 
train passed through the chief cities of the East and west- 
ward to Springfield, Illinois, where the body was laid to 
rest. 

Character of Lincoln. — It is now agreed by almost all 
classes that Abraham Lincoln was the greatest of American 
Presidents. From the time of his death his fame has been 
rising; he is now regarded as probably the strongest world 
figure in the nineteenth century. Born among the lowliest 
of the lowly, trained in the merciless school of adversity 

1 Latin for " So always with tyrants." Booth was afterward shot, and 
several of his companions were hanged. 



THE ALABAMA CLAIMS 385 

and want, he rose in public life until he became the lead- 
ing American of his time. Entering upon his great office 
at the moment when the two great sections of the country 
were ready to grapple in deadly conflict, he grasped the 
reigns of government with a master hand ; and but for his 
consummate ability many believe that the Union could not 
have been saved. ^ 



Foreign Relations ; The Finances 

In addition to the Trent Affair, which we have noticed, 
there were two items in our foreign relations during the 
war period that became very important. The first of these 
is known as 

The Alabama Claims. — The Alabama was a Confederate 
vessel built at Liverpool, against the protests of our minis- 
ter at London. She began, in August, i86r, a wonderful 
tour of the oceans under command of Raphael Semmes. 
For more than two years she plowed the main on her mis- 
sion of destruction, capturing in all sixty-nine American 
ships, which with their cargoes, were worth $10,000,000. 

In June, 1864, we find the Alabama in the harbor of 
Cherbourg, France, where was also the United States war 
vessel Kearsarge, commanded by Captain John A. Win- 
slow. Here Semmes challenged Winslow to a fight, and 
the two vessels swung out in the deep, and began their 
duel to the death. In an hour the Alabama, with many of 
her devoted crew, had sunk beneath the waves. 

Nearly a score of other Confederate cruisers were also 
built in English waters, and at the close of the war the 
United States made a demand that Great Britain pay 

^ Elson's History, p. 775. 



386 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

heavy damages for permitting the breach of neutrahty. 
The settlement will be noticed on a later page. 

Maximilian in Mexico. — The other important foreign 
matter was the attempt of France to establish a monarchy 
in Mexico. In the spring of 1862 the French emperor sent 
an army to Mexico, ostensibly to collect debts due the 
French ; but it was soon discovered that the real object was 
to set up a monarchy on the ruins of the Mexican repubHc. 
The Mexicans were subdued by midsummer, 1863, ^-^d 
Maximilian, the Austrian archduke, was made emperor of 
Mexico. The Mexicans made a pretense of being con- 
tented with the new order. The French army, however, 
remained, and on it rested the security of the throne. 

Now all this was galling to the United States, as a flagrant 
infraction of the Monroe Doctrine ; but coming in the 
midst of the Civil War when our hands were tied, little was 
done to protect that doctrine till the close of the war. 
Then a course of action was determined on. Secretary 
Seward demanded of the French emperor that his troops 
be withdrawn from Mexico, and to emphasize the demand 
General Sheridan was sent into Texas with fifty thousand 
veteran troops. The emperor clearly understood and with- 
drew his army. Maximilian, however, remained, in the 
belief that the Mexicans would be willing to continue as 
his subjects. In this he was sadly in error. 

Scarcely was the army withdrawn when the people rose 
against their monarch, defeated, captured, and put him to 
death ; and again Mexico became a repubhc. 

With Germany and Russia our relations during the war 
were exceedingly pleasant. Not only was the German 
Confederation in full sympathy with the Union cause, but 
thousands of German-Americans offered their lives in 
defense of that cause. 



THE COST IN MEN 



Observations on the War 



387 



The Cost in Men. — Our Civil War was the greatest of 
its kind in human history. Of the Northern armies about 
110,000 men were killed in battle, while more than twice 
that number died of disease or accident. If the losses of 
the South were proportionally great, the war cost the 
nation half a million lives, to say nothing of the thou- 
sands who returned to their homes with maimed bodies or 
broken health. The whole number of men enlisted in the 
North was 2,773,400, many of whom were reenlistments, 
and the highest number in the field at one time was a lit- 
tle more than 1,000,000. The whole number of enlist- 
ments in the South was probably 1,000,000, though no 
accurate account was kept. 

Cost in Money. —At the beginning of the war the 
national debt was a little more than $60,000,000. Four 
years later it was $2,845,000,000. But this enormous in- 
crease represented only a portion of the war expenses. 
To it must be added the income of the government during 
the war, nearly $1,500,000 a day; the separate outlay of 
the states and cities, probably $500,000,000 ; the expense 
to the South, of which no accurate account was kept ; and 
the incalculable destruction of property. The total cost of 
the war no doubt exceeded $10,000,000,000. 

In various ways the government raised large sums of 
money, — by an income tax, by raising the tariff on im- 
ports, by duties on manufacturing, by taxing the states 
directly, and by stamp taxes in many forms. It also 
issued paper money, called '* green backs," to the amount 
of $450,000,000, and these were made legal tender. 

Great Commanders. — A great movement will usually 
bring out great characters who might otherwise have died 



388 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

unknown. The Civil War discovered some strong com- 
manders, but none of the very highest order — none that 
can be compared with Hannibal, Caesar, or Napoleon. 
Grant was probably the most remarkable figure brought 
to the front by the war. Though not a strong tactician, 
he was known for his indomitable pluck, and it is notable 
that the three great surrenders — at Donelson, Vicksburg, 
and Appomattox — were all made to him. 

Next to Grant was Sherman, then Sheridan ; and Thomas 
falls little below either. 

On the Southern side Lee must be named as the ablest 
general, and some believe that he had no equal in the 
North. The meteoric Stonewall Jackson was a man of 
wonderful power, who was still growing until his last 
battle, at Chancellorsville. Albert Sidney Johnston was at 
first believed to be the ablest commander in the South, 
but his untimely death at Pittsburg Landing ended the 
opportunity to prove his powers. One of the Southern 
generals of note was born in the North, Pemberton, a 
native of Connecticut, while two of the strongest com- 
manders of the North — Farragut and Thomas — were of 
Southern birth. 

Result of the War. — The Civil War with all its cost in 
human life and treasure, aas brought untold blessings to 
the country. It eliminated the idea of forcible disunion and 
established the republic on an enduring basis. It opened 
the way to four million slaves to do for themselves and 
to make the best of their opportunities. It removed the 
cause of the long, distressing quarrel between the North 
and the South and opened the way to the wonderful devel- 
opment of Southern industries that has since been inaugu- 
rated. The people of the South were deeply sincere and 
they fought with true American valor ; but the great ma- 



RESULT OF THE WAR 3^9 

jority of them now see that disunion would have been a 
calamity and that slavery was an evil; they rejoice, as do 
the people of the North, in the feeUng of common brother- 
hood that now exists between the great sections of the 
country, and they are as proud as their brethren of the 
North of our vast undivided land. 

SUMMARY 

After the battle of Chickamauga Rosecrans retired to Chattanooga, 
and a few weeks later General Grant was sent to take charge of the army. 
After being defeated at Lookout Mountain and at Missionary Ridge 
Bragg retired into Georgia for the winter. Grant was then made 
lieutenant general and commander in chief of all the armies of the 

North. , . ^, 

Grant then took command of the Army of the Potomac, leaving Sher- 
man at the head of the army in the West. Grant entered the Wilderness 
of Virginia in May, and within a month were fought the great battles of 
the wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold Harbor, after which Grant set- 
tled down to a siege of Petersburg. Meantime Sheridan drove Early 
from the Shenandoah Valley. 

While Grant was in the Wilderness, Sherman was marching against 
Atlanta, which fell into his hands early in September. In August 
Admiral Farragut, after a desperate battle, gained control of Mobile 

the presidential election of 1864 resulted in the reelection of 
Lincoln, though at first there was great opposition in his own party. 

The final work of the armies consisted of Sherman^s famous march to 
the sea and his movement from Savannah northward, and in the 
capture of Richmond and of Lee's army by General Grant. 

President Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865. 

In our foreign relations the Alabama affair and the setting up of a 
monarchy in Mexico by the French attracted chief atttention. 

The chief results of the war were: i. The establishment of the 
Republic on an enduring basis ; 2. Setiing free of four milhon slaves ; 
3. The opening the way to Southern industrial progress and to a 
kindlier feeling between the two great sections of the country. 



CHAPTER XXII 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNION 

The people rejoiced exceedingly that the distressing war 
was over ; but the serious problem of how to reconstruct the 
Union, how to get the straying Southern sister states back 
into the family circle, was yet to be solved. 

Early Plans of Reconstruction 

Long before the close of the war President Lincoln de- 
vised a plan for readmitting the seceded states. By this 
plan a state was to be readmitted when one tenth of its 
voters should take an oath to support the Constitution, the 
Union, and the laws and proclamations regarding slavery 
and should set up a state government. 

Congress rejects Lincoln's Plan. — Many of the leading 
men in Congress were not in favor of Lincoln's plan. 
They were not content to defeat the South in battle ; they 
wished to humble it still further, and when Louisiana and 
Arkansas took advantage of Lincoln's plan and sent 
representatives to Congress, they were rejected by that 
body. 

Soon after this Congress framed a reconstruction bill, 
requiring that a majority of the voters in any Southern 
state must take an oath to support the Constitution and 
set up a state government in order to be readmitted to 
the Union. This bill was sent to Mr. Lincoln on July 4, 

390 



JOHNSON'S PLAN OF RECONSTRUCTION 391 

1864, the last day of the session, and he disposed of it 
by a pocket veto.^ 

The rupture between the President and Congress was 
very serious ; neither side showed signs of yielding. The 
subject of reconstruction was left to rest until the following 
spring. On April 1 1 Mr. Lincoln, in his last public speech, 
explained his plan of 
reconstruction, statin-.; 
what he had done and 
why he had done it. 1 Ic 
also declared that he h.ul 
some new announcemcnl 
to make to the people <)l 
the South, but what iho 
announcement was to be 
was never known. F(>ui 
days later the great w.n 
President was dead. 

Vice President Andrew 
Johnson was sworn into 
the great office. 

At first it seemed prob- 
able that the poHcy of the 
government would be radically changed, as in the two in- 
stances where a Vice President had succeeded to the chief 
office. But Lincoln's mild plan of reconstruction soon 
found favor in Johnson's eyes, partially no doubt through 
the influence of Seward, who remained secretary of state. 

1 The Constitution provides that a congressional hill must be signed or 
vetoed by the President within ten days after its passage. If he does neither, 
it will become a law without his signature. This, however, does not apply 
when Congress adjourns within the ten days. If in that case the President 
withholds his signature, the bill does not become a law. This is called a 
pocket veto. 




Andrew Johnson 



392 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Johnson's plan of reconstruction was similar to that of 
Lincoln and his attitude conciHatory toward the South. 
Congress was not in session and Johnson believed that he 
had the power to restore the Southern states to the Union 
without the aid of Congress. On the 29th of May he issued 
his great amnesty proclamation, extending pardon to almost 
the entire South, certain classes being excepted. On the 
same day he appointed a provisional governor of North 
CaroUna and authorized the setting up of a government in 
that state. In a short time similar provision was made for 
the other seceded states, except for those that had set up 
governments under Lincoln's authority. VBy Johnson's plan 
a state was to be restored to the Union after it had abol- 
ished slavery, repudiated any debt incurred in aid of the 
rebellion, and ratified y 

The Thirteenth Amendment. — When President Lincoln 
issued his Emancipation Proclamation, he intended it only 
as a preparation for an amendment to the Constitution, 
which should prohibit slavery from all parts of the United 
States. In his message of December, 1864, he urged the 
importance of such an amendment. Within the coming 
year both Senate and House adopted an emancipation 
amendment by large majorities. It was then sent to the 
states, and the necessary three fourths of them having rati- 
fied, it was proclaimed on December 18, 1865, a part of the 
Supreme Law of the land. 

I This thirteenth aniendment abolished slavery forever in 
tnte United States.^ iThis was the first amendment to be 
added to the Constitution in sixty-one years, the last pre- 
ceding one being the twelfth, adopted in 1804. 

1 It included slavery in the border states which had not been included in 
the Emancipation Proclamation. Maryland, however, did not wait for the 
amendment. She freed her slaves in 1864. 



THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT 393 

Congressional Reconstruction 

When Congress met in December, 1865, it ignored the 
work of reconstruction by President Johnson. The Senate, 
led by Charles Sumner, and the House, led by Thaddeus 
Stevens of Pennsylvania, defied and insulted the President. 
The House passed a motion, without debate and before the 
annual message of the President was received, to appoint a 
joint committee to inquire into the condition of the seceded 
states. This was the beginning of the bitterest quarrel 
between President and Congress in the history of our 
country. 

The Fourteenth Amendment. — The President refused to 
bow to the will of Congress. On the other hand he 
denounced that body in pubHc speeches because it refused 
to admit delegates from the Southern states. In March, 
1 866j__he vetoed the Civil Rights Bill and it was passed 
over his veto. The substance of the bill was embodied 
in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which 
passed Congress in June, 1866, and was ratified two years 
later. This made the negro a citizen and made him the 
white man's equal before the Federal law. 

Congress now required the seceding states to ratify this 
amendment in order to get back into the Union. Only one 
of them, Q^ennessee^ did so. The remainingAen rejected 
the amendment.) Meantime a new Congress had been 
elected, in November, 1866, and the Johnson party was 
overwhelmingly defeated. Congress then seemed to feel 
that the people approved its course, and its dealings with 
the South henceforth were drastic and merciless. 

The Gr^at Reconstr uction Act was moved in the House 
by Thaddeus Stevens, in February, 1867. It provided 
that the ten states not yet admitted be divided into five mili- 



394 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tary districts and that an officer with an army be sent into each 
to supplant the civil government that Johnson had set up. 
After being passed over the President's veto this law went 
into operation. Within a year and a half after the military 
occupation of the South seven o f the ten states had com- 
plied with the conditions imposed and were readmitted into 
the Union. Three states, however, Virginia^,Mississippi, 
and Texas, hesitated and thus were denied the privilege of 
taking part in the presidential election of 1868, and they 
were further required to ratify the Fifteenth Amendment. 
This amendment, which became a part of the Constitution 
in 1870, was intended to secure to the negro the ri^ht to 
votej5^nd_as_a^-ermanent means of protecting himself. The 
three remaining states eventually ratified it, complied with 
all the conditions imposed by Congress, and before the 
close of 1870 all were readmitted to the Union. 

The Carpetbaggers. — The governments set up in the 
Southern states during the reconstruction period were the 
most corrupt and scandalous in the history of America. 
The old leaders of the rebellion were not permitted to take 
part in the government ; the negroes and poor whites were 
unfit to take the lead, and the result was that a class of 
corrupt politicians, packing up their goods in a carpetbag, 
as it was said, went down from the North and got control 
of the state governments. In a short time they had run 
up the state debts to an alarming degree. In Louisiana 
the debt was increased from ten to fifty million dollars, and 
the carpetbag record in the other states was similar. The 
increase indicated no public improvements — only the^t. 
The taxes imposed were so high that the people could not 
pay them and thousands of farms were sold for taxes. 

The better class of whites stood aghast at the further 
impoverishment of their states. The more vicious class 



THE RACE QUESTION 395 

formed the " Ku Klux Klan," with the object of intimidat- 
ing the black voter. 

The Race Question. The carpetbag governments, to 
the lasting disgrace of the Federal government, were sus- 
tained by the army, and they quickly disappeared on the 
withdrawal of the troops. The state governments then 
passed immediately into the hands of the white men. This 
was most natural. The white race had labored for centu- 
ries to attain self-government. It paid ninety-nine per cent 
of the taxes. Could these great communities be turned over 
to a penniless, illiterate race who knew not the first prin- 
ciples of self-government } Such a spectacle has never 
been known in the world's history. 

We are not in sympathy with some of the methods 
adopted in the South to disfranchise the negroes ; but it 
should be remembered that it is not a want of the ballot 
that retards the negro of the South ; it is the want of ambi- 
tion. The black man can become equal to the white man in 
the government of the South in one way only, and that 
is by becoming an equal force in civilization. 

Impeachment and Trial of President Johnson 

The most important trial ever held in the United States 
was the trial of Andrew Johnson by the Senate in the 
spring of 1868, after his impeachment by the House. The 
strife between the President and Congress that began in 
December, 1865, reached a crisis in 1868. 

The Tenure of Office Act was passed over the President's 
veto in March, 1867. The Constitution provided that 
important jppointments by the President must be ratified 
by the ^enate, but such officials could be removed by the 
President alone. The Tenure of Office Act deprived the 



396 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

President of this power of dismissing his own appointees, 
without the consent of the Senate. 

Johnson, on^beGoming President, had retained the Cabinet 
of Lincoln. Some of the members who sympathized with 
Congress in its fight with Johnson had afterward left the 
Cabinet ; but Edwin M. Stanton, the secretary of war, 
though he condemned the President's course, refused to 
resign. In August, 1867, the President suspended Mr. 
Stanton from office, but when the Senate met in December 
it did not approve Johnson's action and Stanton took his 
place again in the Cabinet. This angered Johnson beyond 
endurance and in February, 1868, he removed Stanton in 
defiance of the Senate. 

The Impeachment. — The President had made enemies 
in the House as well as in the Senate, and on the same day 
that Johnson dismissed Stanton, Thaddeus Stevens brought 
before the House a resolution that *' Andrew Johnson, 
President of the United States, be impeached of high 
crimes and misdemeanors." ^ 

This passed the House a few days later by 126 to 47, 
and thus the President of the United States for the first 
and only time in our history was called to stand trial before 
the Senate. 

The Great Trial. — It was on the 30th of March, 1868, 
that the historic trial of the President of the United States 
began in the Senate chamber. Salm,oa-P:-GhasQ, who had 
become chief justice of the Supreme Court, presided at 
the trial. The senators composed the jury. The members 
of the House were admitted to the Senate chamber and 
certain chosen leaders among them presented the accusa- 

1 The sole power of impeachment rests with the House, and after an im- 
peachment (which resembles an indictment by a Grand Jury) the official 
mpeached must stand trial before the Senate. 



THE GREAT TRIAL 397 

tions against the President, the chief of which was that he 
had violated the Tenure of Office Law in dismissing Mr. 
StaataiL. Mr. Johnson's lawyers offered to prove that one 
object in dismissing Stanton was to put the law itself on 
trial and test its constitutionality ; but this evidence was 
not admitted. Nothing was plainer than the fact that the 
eminent jury was prejudiced against the accused. 

However, when it came to a vote,^ it was found that 
seven of the Republican senators voted in favor of the 
President, 'and TKese, with the eight Democrats and four 
Independents, were exactly enough to save him from con- 
viction. There were fifty-four senators and two thirds, or 
thirty-six, were required for conviction. But only thirty- 
five voted against the President, and nineteen^ in his favor. 
Thus he escaped by a single ..vote. Had the trial gone 
against him he would have been deposed from his office 
and Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio, the president of the 
Senate, would have filled the unexpired term — a little less 
than ten months.^ 

Stanton, who had held to his Cabinet position during 
the trial, now resigned the office. Since his appointment 
by Lincoln in 1862, Stanton had been secretary of war 
and a more fearless, able, uncorruptible secretary never 
filled the office ; but in this contest with Johnson he was 
clearly in the wrongV 

It is now agreed by all classes that Johnson's conviction 
and deposition would have been an unfortunate precedent. 
Hi s real offense was, not the removal of Stanton, but the 
continued exasperating opposition to the party that had 

1 The voting began on the 1 6th of May. 

2 Wade thus became one of the three men in our history to come each 
within one vote of being elected President of the United States and yet miss 
the prize. The other two were x\aron Burr and Samuel J. Tilden. 



398 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

given him power ; and, as he could not be arraigned on 
such a charge, he was arraigned on a technicality which, 
in ordinary times, would have attracted little attention. 
It was gratifying to the country that the great trial had 
caused no popular uprising and no great disturbance in 
the business world. 

SUMMARY 

The problem of reconstruction was a difficult one because history 
furnished no precedent and because the President and tl^ongress did 
not agree on a plan to be adopted. 

President Lincoln, Mr. Seward, and a few other leaders favored a 
mild, conciliatory course in dealing with the South. The majority in 
Congress, led by Sumner and Stevens, were harsh and less magnanimous 
in their attitude toward the South. 

Johnson, succeeding Lincoln, adopted the same mild measures. He 
organized governments in the South ; but Congress, on meeting in 
December, 1865, refused to accept the work of Johnson. 

In February, 1867, a bill was passed to divide the seceded states into 
five military districts and to*send an officer with an army into each. 

Three years later all the seceded states had reentered the Union. 
Meantime corrupt carpetbag governments had created enormous debts 
in the Southern states. 

In February, 1868, the President was impeached by the House for 
dismissing Secretary Stanton in violation of the Tenure of Office Law. 
In the trial by the Senate he was acquitted. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
RECUPERATING YEARS 

The Election of 1868 

The Republican Convention met in Chicago before the 
trial of Johnson had ended. It had but one choice for 
the head of the ticket and that was General U. S. Grant, 
who had won first honors on the battlefield. For Vice 
President Schuyler Colfax was named. 

The platform adopted provided in substance for the 
payment of the public debt in coin. This had a significant 
meaning, for coin had long ceased to circulate and the 
paper money afloat was still far below the par value of 
gold and silver. 

The Democratic Convention pronounced for the payment 
of the war debt in *' legal money," which meant green- 
backs, and it pronounced Republican reconstruction "revo- 
lutionary and void." But this no doubt lost the party 
many votes, as the people were tired of the agitation and 
were longing for harmony on all the old war questions. 

Grant and Colfax were elected ; but the magnitude of 
the Democratic vote was a surprise to all. The Democrats 
carried three Northern states, including New York, while 
Grant's majorities in several others were very small. Six 
of the states that had seceded were carried by the Repub- 
licans, through the carpetbag governments. The election 
showed that the Democratic party had not been destroyed 
by the war, and that it was again a powerful rival to the 
opposing party. 

399 



400 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Troubles in the South. — When Grant became President, 
the reconstruction period, which we have noticed, was 
drawing to a close ; but election troubles continued in the 
South for some years longer and the President was often 
called on to quell riots and decide election contests. It 
was at this time (i 869-1 871) Congress made laws to curb 
the Ku Klux Klan and proposed the Fifteenth Amendment, 
which was intended to secure forever to the negro his 
right to vote. This was pronounced a part of the Consti- 
tution in March, 1870. 

The Pacific Railroad. — The great industrial event of the 
period was the completion in 1869 of the first railroad 
across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. The great West 
was rapidly filhng with settlers. Under the Homestead 
Act of 1862 nearly thirty milHon acres were settled in ten 
years. A railroad to the far West became a necessity. 
As early as 1862 Congress had granted a company a 
charter to the end that the work of constructing a railroad 
across the continent be begun. Other companies were 
chartered later ; the work was begun at Sacramento and at 
Omaha. After years of toil of thousands of men, two 
companies of workmen met at a point in Utah ; the last 
rail was laid with impressive ceremony, and the great work 
of joining the Atlantic and Pacific coasts by rail was com- 
pleted. 

The government had given many millions of dollars to 
these companies and a great deal of land along the route 
besides, and this in later years caused much dissatisfaction. 

Alabama Claims ; Treaty of Washington 

We have noticed the career of the reckless Alabama 
and her reckless sisters on the sea. Our minister at 



THE JOINT HIGH COMMISSION 401 

London had protested in vain against the building of 
Confederate cruisers in British waters. In 1865 the British 
government made this decisive statement : — 

'* Her Majesty's government must decline either to make 
reparation and compensation for the captures made by the 
Alabama or to refer the question to any foreign state." 

This did not settle the matter by any means. Secretary 
Seward made a list of the claims for which the British 
government would be held responsible. In his annual 
message of 1870 President Grant referred to the matter 
in such a way as to convince the English public that there 
was something serious between the two countries. 

The Joint High Commission. — The British ministry was 
moved to speedy action by the President's message. It 
proposed a Joint High Commission to sit at Washington to 
discuss the difficulties, and the offer was accepted. This 
commission, composed of eminent men of both countries, 
was soon appointed. It sat in Washington for two months, 
in the spring of 1871, and brought forth the Treaty of 
Washington, which was soon ratified by both nations. 

This treaty provided for the settlement of the Alabama 
claims by a tribunal of five men who were to meet for the 
purpose at Geneva, Switzerland. It provided also for the 
settlement of the fisheries dispute between the United States 
and Canada, and for the fixing of the northwestern boundary 
of the United States.^ 

The Geneva Award. The five men who were to settle 
the Alabama claims met at Geneva in December, 1871, 
and continued the sessions for nine months. Charles 
Francis Adams represented America, and Sir Alexander 

1 This boundary dispute was referred to the emperor of Germany, who 
decided in favor of the United States, giving us a group of small islands which 
had been claimed by both countries. 

2D 



402 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Cockbiirn, lord chief justice of England, represented the 
British. The other three were disinterested parties. 

The decision was that the British government had failed 
in its neutral obligations and that it pay the United States 
$15,500,000. 

The British public was greatly displeased with the decis- 
ion, but the ministry accepted it, paid the money, and the 
vexed question was settled. The result was a great victory 
for arbitration, for settling international disputes without 
war. 

The Liberal Republican Movement 

General Grant had won high honor on the battlefield ; 
but he was not well fitted for. the duties of the great 
office that he now filled. He was wanting in executive 
ability. He was honest, but had not the capacity to watch 
and curb the wily politician in search of plunder. 

As the next election drew near it was evident that the 
majority of his party favored nominating Grant for a second 
term. But there was a considerable element that opposed 
giving him a second term, in the belief that his want of 
capacity was the chief cause of the demoraHzation in gov- 
ernment circles. 

This faction of the RepubUcan party was led by such 
men as Charles Francis Adams and Horace Greeley of New 
York and Thomas Ewing and Salmon P. -Chase of Ohio. 
When It was seen that the renomination of Grant was 
assured, this faction broke away from the party, named 
themselves Liberal Republicans, and called a national con- 
vention to meet in Cincinnati. 

Nomination of Greeley. — At this convention there was 
a tacit understanding that its candidates should be named 



EARLY CAREER OF GREELEY 403 

by the Democrats. It chose Horace Greeley, the great 
New York editor, to head the ticket, and B. Gratz Brown of 
Missouri for second place. 

The naming of Greeley was stunning to the Democrats. 
Any other candidate would have suited them better. For 
many years Greeley had been a bitter opponent of the 
Democratic party and scarcely was there a leader in the 
party that had not felt the stings of his caustic pen. But 
as the Democrats could not hope to win except by joining 
with the Liberals, they ratified the Liberal candidates in 
their own convention held in Baltimore in July. 

Early Career of Greeley. The son of a farmer, Horace 
Greeley was brought up among the hills of New Hampshire. 
While still a very young boy, he resolved to become a 
journahst, and at the age of sixteen made a long journey to 
a town in Vermont where a newspaper was published. 
Finding employment with the editor, it was not long until 
he was writing editorials, the best the paper had ever con- 
tained. A few years later we find Greeley in Erie, Penn- 
sylvania, working in a newspaper office. As he neared 
manhood he resolved to launch out in the great world and 
make the best of his talents. He went to the city of New 
York, traveling on foot and by canal boat. After years of 
toil, of success and failure, Greeley bloomed forth as the 
leading newspaper man in New York or the nation, and to 
this day he is regarded as the greatest journalist America 
has ever produced. 

The campaign was not very dignified. The Liberal 
orators rung many changes on Grant's incapacity and the 
corrupt carpetbag governments of the South. The Grant 
supporters declared that if Greeley were elected, it would 
be dangerous to the country to turn the government over 
to the unreformed Democracy. 



404 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Greeley was hopeful almost to the end. But in fact many 
Liberals, finding themselves in Democratic company, hast- 
ened back to the Republican fold before election day ; and 
many old-time Democrats, refusing to support Greeley, 
remained away from the polls. The result was a great 
victory for Grant. Mr. Greeley, broken in health and spirits, 
died soon after the election and before the meeting of the 
electoral college. 

Grant's Second Term 

Demoralization in Public Life. — The great victory of 
Grant seemed to lead politicians to disregard the charges 
of corruption, and the next four years were the most de- 
moralizing in the history of the government. General 
Grant was not a good judge of character and the political 
adventurer too often gained his ear. 

The most notable scandal of the time was that known 
as the Credit Mobilier Case. The Credit Mobilier was a 
corporation engaged in western railroad building. It 
received large favors from Congress, after which it was 
found that many members of Congress held stock in the 
company. This was highly discreditable and many repu- 
tations were blasted when the facts were revealed. 

Another scandal was caused by the ''Whisky Ring," 
which was exposed by Mr. Bristow, the sturdy secretary 
of the treasury. In various western towns the manufac- 
turers of whisky bribed the government officials and thus 
were enabled to sell their product without paying the 
government revenue. Some $4,000,000 were stolen in this 
way. Many were arrested, but few punishments followed. 

Even the secretary of war, Mr. Belknap, was impeache4 
by the House for fraudulent practices, but resigned from 
the Cabinet before he could be tried by the Senate. 



NATIONAL FINANCES 405 

Indian affairs were sadly mismanaged, and serious 
Indian troubles in the Northwest were due chiefly to 
this fact. 

In 1873 General Canby, who had been sent to quiet the 
Modocs in Oregon, was assassinated while under a flag of 

truce. 

In 1876 a most disastrous Indian battle took place on the 
Little Big Horn River in Montana. General George A. 
Custer was sent with about three hundred men to remove 
a band of Sioux. In a desperate battle with a thousand 
of the red warriors Custer and his whole band were 

killed. 

National Finances. — Every schoolboy or schoolgirl knows 
something about money and its uses ; but the great subject 
of finance, and how the nation provides the people with 
money, is too difficult for young people. We shall touch 
the subject but slightly here. 

The government made many blunders during and after 
the war ; but in managing the finances it did nobly. The 
large issues of paper money had driven gold and silver out 
of circulation ; but the government resolved to redeeem all 
in coin and it carried out this purpose, though the resump- 
tion of specie payments (that is, the making of a paper 
dollar equal to a dollar in coin) was not brought about till 

1879. 

The great pubUc debt, amounting to $2,800,000,000 at 
the close of the war, was reduced by a thousand million 
dollars by 1872. In July, 1870, a law was passed to 
refund the public debt at a lower rate of interest ; that is, 
to pay off the bonds bearing six per cent and issue others 
at four or five per cent. By this means the government 
saved many miUions a year. 

In 1873 a law was passed to drop the standard silver 



406 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

dollar from the list of coins ; but as this caused much dis- 
satisfaction, the silver dollar was later restored. In 1875 
a law was passed by which not less than two million and 
not more than four million silver dollars a month was to be 
coined. 

The Panic of 1873. — During the war when the issue of 
greenbacks made money plentiful, ^^the people got into the 
habit of spending it freely. And after the war when much 
of this money was withdrawn from circulation, they kept in 
their old habits of spending money freely — until the crash 
came. Great business enterprises were undertaken on 
borrowed capital ; hundreds of miles of needless railroads 
were built in the unpeopled West. The panic began with 
the failure of Jay Cooke and Company, a great banking 
house of Philadelphia. Hundreds of business failures 
followed, and it was several years before the financial and 
industrial world regained its normal condition. 

A Political Reaction. — The party in power, guilty or not 
guilty, is always blamed for a panic. The Democrats were 
prompt to blame the RepubHcans for the panic of 1873, 
and on this account and on account of the many scandals 
in public life they caught the ear of the people and swept 
the country in the congressional election of 1874. In the 
House a Republican majority of more than a hundred was 
replaced by a Democractic majority almost as great. 

The Centennial. — As the hundredth anniversary of the 
nation's birth approached it was decided to celebrate the 
event by holding a centennial exhibition, and the place 
chosen was Philadelphia, where the great Declaration of 
1776 had been made. This city furnished an admirable 
site in Fairmount Park, lying on both sides of the wind- 
ing Schuylkill. 

The nations of the world were invited to take part and 



A DISPUTED PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION 



407 



thirty-three did so — all civilized nations except Greece. 
Several hundred buildings large and small were erected, 
the largest being the Main Building which covered twenty 
acres. The chief figures at the opening were President 
Grant and Dom Pedro II, emperor of Brazil. 

The centennial, though not financially successful, proved 
a great stimulus in the advancing of art, science, and 
commerce. The American people, in preparing a great 
continent for civilized 
life, in building cities 
and railroads, had been 
painfully practical and 
had neglected the re- 
finements that charac- 
terize the European 
countries. The foreign 
exhibits gave them a 
needed lesson in art 
and grace, while, on the 
other hand, the Euro- 
pean was benefited by 
his contact with the 
sleepless activity of 
the Americans. 

A Disputed Presiden- 
tial Election. — Twice 
in our history (in 1800 
and in 1824) did 
President, but only once has there been a disputed presi- 
dential election — that of 1876. 

The Republicans had expected to nominate James G. 
Blaine of Maine, who had become almost the idol of the 
party ; but a certain element of the party regarded him 




Rutherford B. Hayes 



the electoral college fail to choose a 



408 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



with distrust and the convention chose Rutherford B. Hayes 
of Ohio, William A. Wheeler of New York was chosen 
for second place. Mr. Hayes had been a brave soldier 
and three times governor of Ohio, but he was not among 
the strong leaders of the party. 

The Democrats, for the first time since the passing of 
Douglas, enjoyed the leadership of a great man — Samuel 
J. Tilden of New York. Mr. Tilden had done the nation 

a great service in unearth- 
ing the corruptions of the 
infamous Tweed Ring of 
New York and had been 
governor of that state. 

The one campaign cry of 
the Democrats was Reform-. 
The newspapers and orators 
of the party joined in the 
one widespread call for 
reform in the public service. 
The Republicans could not 
raise a counter cry of corrup- 
tion because the Democrats 
had not been in power for sixteen years. But they " waved 
the bloody shirt " in oldtime fashion. They declared that 
if the Democrats succeeded to power, the Southern war 
debt would be paid and perhaps the black man would be 
reenslaved. 

The election was very close, but no one was prepared 
for the long and bitter contest that followed. Mr. Tilden 
had received a popular majority of a quarter of a million 
votes, but the Republicans disputed his supposed election 
in the electoral college. A long contest continued through 
the winter. The danger of war was serious, and only the 




Samuel J. Tilden 



THE ALABAMA CLAIMS 409 

inborn love of the American people for peace and order 
saved the country. At length it was decided that an 
Electoral Commission of fifteen men be appointed to decide 
the election. This commission, composed of five men 
from each house of Congress and five from the Supreme 
Court, decided that Hayes should receive the electors in 
dispute. This decision gave Tilden one hundred and 
eighty-four votes to one hundred and eighty-five for 
Hayes, who therefore became President, and the great 
question was settled. 

SUMMARY 

The election of 1868 resulted in the success of the Republicans, who 
chose General Grant for President, defeating Horatio Seymour, the 
Democratic candidate. 

The Pacific Railroad, completed in 1869, was the first transcontinental 
railroad, and it did much toward the developing of the West. 

The Alabama Claims were settled by a tribunal that was provided 
for in the Treaty of Washington. This tribunal met in Geneva, Switz- 
erland, and decided that England should pay the United States 
$15,500,000 (1872). 

The Liberal Republicans were a faction of the Republican party that 
opposed Grant's reelection. They joined with the Democrats and sup- 
ported Horace Greeley for President. Mr, Greeley was defeated and 
Grant was given a second term. 

Corrupt practices in public life were widespread and this, with the 
panic of 1873, ^ed to a political reaction in 1874. The Democrats won 
the House that year by a large majority. 

In 1876 the Centennial celebration of the nation's birth was held in 
Philadelphia. 

The presidential election of 1876 resulted in a long dispute between 
the rival parties, the candidates being R. B. Hayes and S. J. Tilden. 
At length an Electoral Commission decided in favor of Mr. Hayes. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 

Administration of Hayes 

President Hayes was a sincere man not without ability. 
Soon after he became President he withdrew the troops 
from the three Southern states — South CaroHna, Florida, 
and Louisiana — which had been under military rule since 
the war, and for the first time since the firing on P'ort 
Sumter the South was left to take care of itself. For the 
first time m sixteen years the people enjoyed a season of 
political rest. 

Mr. Hayes chose WilUam M. Evarts secretary of state, 
and John Sherman secretary of the treasury. Mr. Sher- 
man proved himself a great financier. His chief work was 
to bring about specie payments without disturbing the 
financial or industrial world, and this he did with admirable 
skill. 

Industrial Awakening. — In the business world the 
country was taking on new life and the most significant 
feature was the awakening of the South. The new system 
of free labor in the South was found to be immeasur- 
ably superior to that of slave labor. The great coal 
beds, the iron mines, second to none, the boundless timber 
lands of the South, all of which had remained unused in 
the past, were opened to development. Manufactories 
were built in many Southern town and in addition to 

410 



GREAT RAILROAD STRIKE OF 1877 411 

this there was a steady increase in the production of 
cotton.^ 

In the North also there was a wonderful awakening, 
most notably in the steel, flour, canned goods, meat pack- 
ing, and oil industries. Petroleum had been discovered in 
western Pennsylvania in 1859 ^^^ by the time we are 
treating, the oil business had grown to vast proportions. 

Great things were happening in the West. The Pacific 
Railroad, completed in 1869, had opened the Rocky Moun- 
tain country to development as nothing had ever done. 
Colorado was admitted as the Centennial State in 1876, 
and others were to follow a few years later. ^ 

Great Railroad Strike of 1877. — One effect of the newly 
awakening industrial life was the union of great business 
interests into combinations or trusts. This brought unrest 
among the laboring classes. In 1877 the great railroad 
strike occurred. This was so extensive as to cover the 
half of the country east of the Mississippi, and in all that 
section railroad traffic was at a standstill for two weeks. 
Pittsburg was the storm center and millions of dollars' 
worth of property was destroyed in that city. The gov- 
ernors of several states were obliged to call for national 
aid in putting down riots. The railroad strike was con- 
tagious. It spread to mining, manufacturing, and other 
industries. In most cases the strikers gained but Httle. 

Anti-Chinese Movement. — The Chinese began coming 
to California in large numbers soon after the Burlingame 
Treaty was made with China (1868). These Mongolians 
clung to their customs and sup^^rstitions and made no 
pretense of becoming Americans. After earning a few 

1 The production of cotton in i860 was 4,670,000 bales ; in 1905 it ex- 
ceeded 13,000,000 bales. 

- For the date of the admission of all the states see Appendix. 



412 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

hundred dollars they would betake themselves back to 
China whence hordes of their countrymen would come 
to America and repeat the process. Their wiUingness to 
work for very low rages rendered them undesirable com- 
petitors with white laborers. 

A movement against the Chinese in 1877 in San Fran- 
cisco led to riots. Congress was besought to enact an 
anti-Chinese law. In 1878 such a law was passed, but 
vetoed by President Hayes. Ten years passed when, in 
1888, a Chinese Exclusion measure became a law. This 
was followed in 1892 by the Geary Chinese Exclusion law, 
the most sweeping act of its kind ever enacted in any 
country. This law has greatly relieved our western coast 
of a most undesirable class. 

Farmers' Organizations. — A secret order called the 
Grangers, or Patrons of Husbandry, was founded in 1867, 
and reached its high-water mark, about 1,500,000 members, 
both men and women, at the time of Hayes's presidency. 
After this the membership decHned and is now (1906) 
about 800,000; but the order has strengthened internally 
and promises to be permanent. Its object is to promote 
agricultural interests. 

The Farmers' Alliance, organized in 1873, also became 
national in scope. It is not a secret order ; it gives more 
attention to politics than do the Grangers. 

The Garfield Tragedy 

James A. Garfield, who succeeded Mr. Hayes as Presi- 
dent, was the second of our Presidents to die at the hands 
of the assassin. 

The Blaine-Conkling Feud. — The Garfield tragedy had 
its origin in a bitter feud between two great Republican 



SPLIT IN THE REPUBLICAN PARTY 



413 



leaders, James G. Blaine of Maine and Roscoe Conklingof 
New York. Away back in 1866 when both were members 
of the House these two men had a quarrel and forever 
afterward were personal enemies. This feud had its results. 
It was chiefly through Conkling's efforts that Blaine 
failed to secure the presidential nomination in 1876. 

Again in 1880 when it seemed that Blaine would surely 
capture the prize, it was Conkling who led the forces against 
him and secured his defeat. He did this by inducing 
General Grant to con- 
sent to be a candidate 
for a third term and by 
securing some three 
hundred delegates to 
stand faithfully for the 
ex-President. Both 
Blaine and Grant failed, 
however, to secure the 
nomination and the con- 
vention turned to find 
a ''dark horse." It 
chose James A. Gar- 
field of Ohio. Chester 
A. Arthur of New 
York was nominated 
for second place. 

In the election the 
Republicans were suc- 
cessful, defeating General Winfield Scott Hancock, the 
nominee of the Democrats. 

Split in the Republican Party. — The Republican factions 
worked together during the campaign, but the trouble 
broke out afresh when Garfield chose Blaine secretary of 




James A. Garfield 



414 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



State. This was galling to Conkling, and the crisis came 
when the President appointed for collector of the port of 
New York a friend of Blaine and ah enemy of Conkling. 
When Conkling found that he could not secure the with- 
drawal of the appointment nor prevent its confirmation by 
the Senate, he and his colleague resigned from the Senate, 

expecting a reelection 
by the New York leg- 
islature as a vindica- 
tion of their course. 
But the legislature, 
influenced by the 
Blaine faction, re- 
fused to reelect them 
and chose others to 
fill their places. 

Death of Garfield.— 
This incident opened 
wide the breach in 
the Republican party, 
and while the quarrel 
was at its height, the 
country was thrown 
into consternation by 
the assassination of 
the President, July 2, 
1881. The assassin was a half-witted disappointed office 
seeker from New York, named Guiteau.^ 

Mr. Garfield was shot through the body while in a rail- 
road station about to take a train. He lived for many 

1 Guiteau's plea was that it was necessary to ''H'emove " the President in 
order to reunite the Repubhcan party. The man was executed. He should 
have been sent to an insane asylum. 




James G. Blaine 



THE STAR-ROUTE FRAUDS 415 

weeks through the hot summer months. In August he 
was taken to the seashore, but the change did little good 
and on the night of September 19 he died. His body 
was carried to Cleveland, Ohio, the beautiful lake city near 
which he had been born and had always lived, and there it 
was laid to rest. 

Some hours before daylight on the morning after Gar- 
field's death Chester A. Arthur was sworn into the great 
office, in his own house in the city of New York. 

Arthur's Administration 

No other President in our history has been so slightly 
known to the public at the time of his inauguration as was 
Arthur. Until his nomination he had been an obscure 
politician in New York, scarcely known outside of the city. 
He was not long in the presidential chair until he proved 
himself a strong, impartial executive. He would certainly 
have been nominated by the RepubUcans in 1884 but for 
the powerful hold of Mr. Blaine on the party. 

The Star-route Frauds. — In 1881 the attention of the 
public was directed to a scandal known as the '' Star-route 
frauds." These routes were mail lines in the middle West 
where mail could not be carried by railroads or steamboats. 
They were called '*star-route " because a star was placed 
on the map to designate the stations. It was found that 
high officials of the government, including a United States 
senator and one high in the postal department, had con- 
spired with the mail-carrying contractors to defraud the 
government. Large sums of money had been stolen before 
the offenders were discovered and dismissed from the ser- 
vice. A few of them were put on trial, but no punishments 
followed. 



4l6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Civil Service Reform. — The spoils system, that is, the 
habit of a party on coming into power of turning out of 
office all officials that belonged to the opposite party, had 
been in practice for half a century. But the system was 
pernicious ; it led men to feel that they were serving their 
party rather than their country, or receiving a reward for 
party zeal. While Grant was President, a feeble effort was 

made to reform the 
Civil Service. 
President Hayes 
urged Congress to 
continue the work, 
but without effect. 
At length public 
opinion became so 
urgent for reform 
that Congress was 
obliged to heed the 
demand. In Janu- 
ary, 1883, a bill was 
passed to reestab- 
lish the Civil Ser- 
vice on the merit 
system. At first 
but few classes 
came under the 
new law, but later 
Presidents have extended the reform until now it includes 
nearly every branch of the government service. 

There is little else to record of the Arthur administration, 
except the Edmunds anti-polygamy law, and a tariff law 
enacted in 1883, ^ sort of compromise measure that pleased 
no one. 




Chester A. Arthur 



A POLITICAL REVOLUTION 417 

In 1 88 1 a great industrial exposition at Atlanta, Georgia, 
and another at New Orleans three years later exhibited 
the awakening of the New South as nothing had done 
before. 

A Political Revolution. — For twenty-four years the Repub- 
lican party had held control of the government ; but in 1884 
it lost the election and the presidency passed to its great 
rival, the Democratic party. 

The Republicans nominated the brilliant leader, James G. 
Blaine. But Mr. Blaine had failed to win the confidence of 
some of the strong men of the party, notably Henry Ward 
Beecher and George William Curtis, with their thousands 
of followers. Moreover, Blaine's old enemy, Roscoe Conk- 
ling, refused to aid in the campaign and many of his ad- 
mirers voted for the Democratic candidate. 

The Democrats had nominated Grover Cleveland, gov- 
ernor of New York, who had attracted national attention 
as reform mayor of Buffalo. The election was an exceed- 
ingly close one. New York was the pivotal state and it 
gave Cleveland less than twelve hundred votes over 
Blaine. This was enough, however, to decide the great 
contest and for the first time since the passing of James 
Buchanan the old party of Jefferson and Jackson came 
into control of the government. 

First Administration of Cleveland, i 885-1 889 

New Conditions. — The old party now restored to power 
was in one sense a new party. Th- majority of voters had 
grown to manhood since the war. Old conditions had 
passed away and the new conditions called for a new type 
of statesmanship. The unfriendly feeling of former years 
between the two great sections of the country was greatly 

2E 



4l8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



softened and nothing proved this more than the fact that 
Mr. Cleveland called to his cabinet two men who had been 
commanders in the Confederate armies. 

The first bill to which this Democratic President set his 
hand was one restoring General Grant to the retired list of 
the army. 

The Presidential Succession Law. — The most important 
law in the first four years of Cleveland's presidency (aside 

from the necessary 
bills that every Con- 
gress must pass) was 
the law to provide for 
the presidential suc- 
cession. For a long 
time it was felt that 
such a law should be 
enacted, and the death 
in 1885 of Thomas A. 
Hendricks, who had 
been elected Vice 
President on the ticket 
with Cleveland, led 
Congress to see the 
necessity of such a 
law. 

Before this time the office of President passed to the 
president of the Senate and after him to the Speaker of 
the House, in case of the death or disability of both Presi- 
dent or Vice President. But if the Senate and House 
were not in session and had not chosen these officers, there 
would be a lapse. 

All danger of such a condition was removed by the 
Presidential Succession Law of January, 1886. By this 




Grover Cleveland 



THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE ACT 419 

law the succession runs through the Cabinet, beginning 
with the secretary of state; the second being the secretary 
of the treasury, the third the secretary of war, and so on. 

The Interstate Commerce Act was passed in 1887. The 
object was to prevent the great railroad companies from 
discriminating against the small shippers by giving lower 
rates to the large shippers. This was usually done by 
means of rebates. The law has not been effective in 
abohshing rebates, though it has been useful in many ways 
through the work of the Interstate Commerce Commission. 

Among the subjects to attract public attention was a 
serious fisheries dispute with Canada, which President 
Cleveland succeeded in settling with fair satisfaction to 
both sides ; and an anarchistic outbreak in Chicago. A 
meeting of anarchists was held in Haymarket Square in 
that city and a band of policemen was sent to disperse 
them. A bomb was then thrown amid the officers, and six of 
them were killed and many injured. The whole country 
was shocked at the outrage. The leaders of the mob were 
arrested. Four were hanged and several sent to the 
penitentiary. 

The Famous Tariff Message. — President Cleveland be- 
lieved that the agitation in the labor world, which had 
continued for several years, was caused in part by the 
high tariff. The laboring classes were certainly not shar- 
ing the benefits of the high tariff with the great manu- 
facturers. The President, therefore, devoted his entire 
annual message in 1887 to an argument in favor of re- 
ducing the tariff — and it cost him a reelection to the 
presidency. 

The presidential election of 1888 was a close one. The 
Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison, a grandson of 
William Henry Harrison whom the Whigs had elected 



420 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

President in 1840. Cleveland received a majority of the 
popular vote by 110,000, but Harrison had a majority in 
the electoral college. 



Harrison's Administration 

The McKinley Tariff. — The Republicans had won the 
presidency and both houses of Congress with the tariff as 
the main issue. The leaders, therefore, interpreted the 

election as a man- 
date from the peo- 
ple to make the 
tariff still higher, 
and they proceeded 
to do so. The 
McKinley Tariff, 
named from its 
f r a m e r , William 
McKinley of Ohio, 
became a law in 
August, 1890. It 
raised the duties to 
an average of 
above fifty per cent 
— far higher than 
those of any tariff 
before the war. 
Prices of almost all imported goods were raised and the 
people seemed displeased, for in the congressional election 
that year the Democrats gained control of the House by a 
large majority. 

Dependent Pension Law ; Sherman Silver Law ; Anti- 
Lottery. — In addition to the McKinley Tariff law sev- 




Bemamin Harrison 



THE ANTI-TRUST LAW 42 1 

eral other important laws were enacted in 1890. Among 
them was the Dependent Pension Act. By this law sol- 
diers and sailors, who had served in the Union army or 
navy in the Civil War, were entitled to pensions, if unable, 
from any cause, to earn a living. There was an immediate 
rush to secure pensions and the annual pension outlay, 
which was $89,000,000 in 1889, reached the enormous total 
of ^158,000,000 in 1893. 

The Anti-Trust law, for the preventing of great combina- 
tions of business corporations, and the Anti-Lottery law 
were enacted in the summer of 1890. The latter, aimed 
at the Louisiana lottery, forbade the use of the mails for 
lottery literature, and it proved very effective ; but the 
Anti-Trust law has not been of much practical use. 

The Sherman Silver law dates also from the same session 
of Congress. The law was passed in accordance with a 
demand from the West for a larger use of silver as money. 
It repealed the Bland-Allison law and ordered the purchase 
by the government of four and a half million ounces of 
silver a month. This law, it was expected, would keep up 
the price of silver, but it failed to do so and a few years 
later the silver question became the most important one 
before the country. 

Six new states entered the Union in the years 1889 and 
1890. These were North Dakota, South Dakota, Mon- 
tana, and Washington in 1889 and Idaho and Wyoming 
in 1890. 

The population had moved steadily westward from the 
East and eastward from the Pacific coast until the vast 
Rocky Mountain region had been covered and there was 
no longer a frontier. The mountain states were not 
thickly settled. There was here and there a mining town, 
a cattle ranch, or a community, but so vast was the extent 



422 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of these western states that the aggregate population was 
very considerable. 

Oklahoma territory was opened to white settlers on 
April 22, 1889. Fifty thousand people waited at the 
border for the bugle call to proclaim the hour of opening, 
when they rushed in, many securing farms while others 
were not successful, as the demand was greater than the 
supply. 

The congressional elections of 1890 resulted in the 
defeat of the Republicans, the Democrats gaining control 
of the House by more than a hundred majority. Another 
party, the Populist party, had now come into existence, and 
so rapid was its growth in the West and South that it 
elected eighteen members to the House and several sena- 
tors in 1890. 

The administration, having lost control of Congress, 
could pass no more party measures, and it dragged list- 
lessly along. 

In 1 89 1 two events in our foreign relations attracted 
much public attention. One was a dispute with Chili 
because of an attack on American sailors in the streets 
of Valparaiso in which several were killed. A settlement 
was m_ade by the payment by the government of Chili to 
the United States of $75,000 indemnity. 

The other was the putting to death of eleven Italians 
by a mob in New Orleans. These men belonged to a mur- 
derous secret society and were supposed to have murdered 
the chief of police. Three of them proved to be subjects 
of the king of Italy, who demanded that the leaders of the 
mob be punished and that an indemnity be paid. The 
indemnity ($25,000) was paid by the administration, but 
as the state of Louisiana had control of the case, no pun- 
ishments followed. 



THE ELECTION OF 1892 423 

The Election of 1892. — President Harrison was nomi- 
nated for a second term. The Democratic masses wanted 
Cleveland, though the professional politicians in his own 
state opposed him. He was nominated on the first ballot, 
though every New York delegate voted against him. The 
chief issue of the campaign was the McKinley tariff. 

The third party of this year, known as the Populist, or 
People's party, w^as the most formidable for many years. 
It pronounced for the free coinage of silver, for an income 
tax, and for national ownership of railroads and telegraphs. 
This party named James B. Weaver and the Prohibitionists 
named John Bidwell. 

The result of the election was a sweeping victory for 
Cleveland. The Senate also became Democratic by a 
large majority. 

Useful Inventions. — Among the most important inven- 
tions since the war are the telephone and the electric light. 
The telephone was invented simultaneously by Elisha Gray 
of Chicago and Alexander Bell of Boston, both of whom ap- 
plied for a patent on the same day and at almost the same 
hour. The electric light, invented by Charles F. Brush 
and Thomas A. Edison, has innumerable uses, the most 
important of which is the lighting of city streets. Among 
the hundreds of other inventions since the Civil War are 
passenger elevators for high buildings, the typewriter, the 
bicycle and automobile, typesetting machines, steam heat- 
ing, and artificial ice. 

Among engineering achievements are the Brooklyn 
bridge, completed in 1883; the Williamsburg bridge, com- 
pleted in 1904, both between New York and Brooklyn; the 
Eads steel bridge across the Mississippi at St. Louis, and 
the construction of the Eads jetty system for deepening 
the channel of the river below New Orleans. 



424 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

SUMMARY 

One of the first acts of Mr. Hayes on his becoming President was 
to withdraw the troops from South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana 
which had been under military rule since the war. 

A great awakening in the business world marks this administration, 
the most significant feature of which was the awakening in the South 
which, under its new system of labor, began a wonderful career of 
prosperity. 

An Anti-Chinese movement on the Pacific coast resulted in a strict 
law against Chinese immigration. 

The Grangers and Farmers' Alliance, organizations of farmers, became 
national in scope during this period. 

The election of 1880 resulted in the choice of James A. Garfield for 
President. He was shot by an assassin in July, 1881, and died in 
September, when Chester A. Arthur was sworn into the office. The 
most notable feature of Arthur's administration was the progress made 
in Civil Service Reform. 

In 1884 Grover Cleveland defeated Mr. Blaine for President, and the 
reins of government passed to the Democrats, for the first time in 
twenty-four years. The Presidential Succession law was passed in 
1886 and the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887. 

In December, 1887, Mr. Cleveland devoted his entire message to the 
tariff, thus making that the issue in the campaign of the following year, 
when Cleveland was defeated by Benjamin Harrison. 

Among the important laws passed while Harrison was President 
were the Dependent Pension law, the McKinley Tariff", the Anti-Trust 
and Anti-Lottery laws. 

Two disputes with foreign countries, one with Chili and the other 
with the king of Italy, marked the year 1891. In 1892 Mr. Cleveland 
was elected a second time to the presidency. 



CHAPTER XXV 
WAR AND EXPANSION 

Cleveland's Second Term 

Grover Cleveland was our only President to serve 
two terms that were not consecutive. The large Republi- 
can faction, known as " Mugwumps," who had supported 
him was now recognized by the choosing of Walter (2- 
Gresham, one of their number, as secretary of state. 
Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois had been elected Vice 
President. 

The Hawaiian Islands.— Hawaii, or the Sandwich Islands, 
was a tiny monarchy in the Pacific Ocean, some twenty- 
one hundred miles from San Francisco, with a little more 
than one hundred thousand inhabitants. 

A number of Americans living on the islands, desiring 
to have them annexed to the United States, brought about 
a revolution, dethroned the queen, and framed a treaty of 
annexation. This was done while Mr. Harrison was Presi- 
dent, and he sent the treaty to the Senate. But he went 
out of office before that body could act and Mr. Cleveland 
withdrew the treaty on the ground that we had no right to 
govern the islands unless the Hawaiian people themselves 
sought annexation, which he declared they had not done. 

The deposed queen, however, was not restored and 
Hawaii became a republic. A few years later (July 7, 1898), 
when the Cleveland administration had been succeeded by 
another, the islands were formally annexed to the United 
States. 

425 



426 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Panic of 1893. — Scarcely had the administration 
begun its career when the finances of the country became 
greatly disturbed and there were unmistakable signs of 
panic and industrial depression. In the belief that the 
repeal of the Sherman Silver law would bring relief, the 
President called an extra session of Congress to meet in 
August, 1893. This law compelled the government to 
purchase four and a half million ounces of silver per 
month and to pay for it in notes redeemable in gold. The 
law was at length repealed, but it was too late to avert the 
coming panic, which was the resultant of many causes. 
The business of the country was unsettled and hundreds of 
manufactories closed their doors, thus throwing thousands 
of people out of work. Several years passed before the 
business of the country resumed its normal condition. 

The Wilson Tariff. — At such a moment it was no doubt 
unwise for the Democrats to disturb the tariff; but they 
had won the election on this issue and they now proceeded 
to frame a new tariff bill. It was called the Wilson Tariff 
because framed by William L. Wilson, a leading member 
of the House from West Virginia. 

By this tariff the average duties of the McKinley Tariff, 
about fifty per cent, were lowered to about thirty-seven 
per cent and many things were put on the free list. The 
bill became a law in August, 1894. It included a provision 
for an income tax, which, however, was pronounced uncon- 
stitutional the next year by the Supreme Court. 

The people seemed displeased with the Wilson Tariff, 
and for this and other reasons the Republicans swept the 
country in the elections of 1894, and gained a large majority 
in the Lower House of Congress, so that from this time 
on the administration could pass no party measures. 

The Venezuela Message. -~ A startling event occurred in 



THE SILVER CAMPAIGN OF 1896 427 

our relations with Great Britain late in the year 1895. For 
many years there had been a standing dispute between the 
Enghsh government and Venezuela on account of territory 
claimed by both. Venezuela offered again and again to 
leave the matter to arbitration and our government urged 
the English to accept this offer, but they refused. Our 
secretary of state informed the British premier that in 
accordance with the Monroe Doctrine the United States 
must insist on arbitration, and when the premier declared 
in answer that he did not accept the Monroe Doctrine, Mr. 
Cleveland came out with his now famous message. 

In this message the President declared that the Monroe 
Doctrine must be respected and that the United States 
would use every means within its power to bring about 
arbitration. The world was thrilled by the suddenness and 
positive tone of the message and also by the fact that Con- 
gress forgot its party differences and voted unanimously 
to support the President. 

For a time it seemed that the war cloud hovered over 
the two great English-speaking nations ; but the Enghsh 
government receded from its position, agreed to arbitra- 
tion, and all danger of war was over. 

The Silver Campaign of 1896. — ^ As we have noticed, the 
administration was launched in the midst of an incipient 
panic, and this panic bore heavily on the people for sev- 
eral years. The Republicans heaped the blame on the 
party in power and thus the Democrats were repaid for 
what they had done twenty years before. Many believed 
the repeal of the Sherman law and the consequent drop 
in the price of silver to be the cause of the hard times. 
There was, therefore, a great cry from the West and South 
for the free coinage of silver at the rate of 16 to i. 

There were many silverites in both parties, but at length 



428 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the Republicans decided on the gold standard and nomi- 
nated William McKinley of Ohio for President. The 
Democrats pronounced for free coinage of silver and 
nominated William J. Bryan of Nebraska, the Populists 
joining with them in the choice of Bryan. 

Both candidates were men of the highest personal char- 
acter. The campaign was the most exciting for many 
years. Mr. Bryan spoke in many states and his magic 
eloquence drew vast crowds. But the odds were against 
him. Many people believed that free silver meant cheap 
money, ** dishonest money," and McKinley was elected by 
a large majority. Garret A. Hobart of New Jersey became 
Vice President. 

The Spanish War 

After enacting a new tariff measure the administration 
was called on to engage in a short war with Spain. The 
new tariff, which is still (1906) in force, is known as the 
Dingley Tariff, because framed by Nelson Dingley, a 
member of the House from Maine. It repealed the Wilson 
Tariff and raised the duties as high as in the McKinley 
bill of 1890. The Dingley Tariff became a law on July 
24, 1897. 

Spain and Cuba. — At one time Spain had control of the 
western half of North America, of nearly all of Central 
and South America, and most of the adjacent islands. 
But her power waned until only Cuba and Porto Rico 
were left to her in the Western Hemisphere. Her rule in 
Cuba was one of corruption and oppression and the Cubans 
revolted several times against her iron hand. The last of 
these revolts began in February, 1895. 

Spain sent an army to Cuba, but in three years it had 
done but little to put down the insurrection. At last the 




(The different Scales used shouk 




< C 1 F 2 C 



OCEAN 



OFOO^ 
'"^K^ MANl 

•yrligo-Pago BaVhor 

AN ISLANrtDS 1899 

•ICiUI Posossioiis) West from 






oted with particular care.) 



\a " OAHijOTionphJlii c 

u HAWAIIAN r «».MpjLOKAi ^ 
2 ISLANDS '-j''*'°JDviAUAi ''vi. 

JU l.uO 20O 15iiV„t frJmG,t,nwih 



TERRITORIAL 
GROWTH 

OF THE 

IJKITED STATES 

Disputed I { 

A Disputed by Great Britiau 
aii.l (he United States (1:83-1842) 

B Disputed by Spain and the 
United States, ( 1808-1819) 
seized by the United States 

SCALE OF MILES 

-200 



1812. 



'C 'l- o'" MI LES -Area 3,GU0 68^ 
3 JO 20 Sq.iui. I 

,^ -T > , ^SAN JUAN 




euRMAr* co,,N.r, 



SPAIN AND CUBA 



429 



Spaniards decided on a starvation policy. Thousands of 
Cubans took no part in the war ; they remained on their 
farms until the cruel General Weyler drove them from their 
homes and penned them up in the towns, that they might 




William McKinlev 



not furnish food for the rebels. Soon they were in a 
starving condition. The death rate was frightful. The 
cry of distress reached the great American heart. Our 
people were eager to rescue down-trodden Cuba, even if it 
meant war with Spain. 

President Cleveland had warned Spain in his final mes- 




430 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED SSATES 

sage. President McKinley repeated the warning and still 
Spain refused to hear. In February, 1898, the Maine, 
a fine American battleship that was lying in Cuban waters, 
was blown to fragments by a submarine mine and two 
hundred and sixty-six of her crew perished. When the 

American people were con- 
vinced that the Maine was 
. destroyed through Spanish 
treachery, their anger broke 
forth. The destruction of the 
\ Maine may have hastened the 
, ' war^ but it did not cause it. 
^ The true cause of the war is 
found in a few words from the 
President's special message to 
Congress of April 11, 1898, as 
Admiral George Dewey follows : " In the name of hu- 

manity, in the name of civiliza- 
tion . . . the war in Cuba must stop." War was declared 
by Congress on April 25, and none was ever waged for a 
nobler purpose. 

Dewey at Manila Bay. — The first notable battle of the 
war occurred in the Orient. Spain had controlled the 
Philippine Islands since their discovery by the dauntless 
Magellan in 1521. In the spring of 1898 Commodore 
George Dewey had command of an American fleet in 
eastern waters, and he was ordered to Manila Bay to attack 
the Spaniards. He hastened to Manila, and on the first 
day of May met the Spanish fleet commanded by Admiral 
Montojo, and the battle of Manila occurred. The battle 
began early in the morning and by one o'clock in the 
afternoon the Spanish fleet was totally destroyed. Hun- 
dreds of Spaniards were dead. or wounded and not an 



THE WAR IN CUBA 



431 



American was killed, nor an American ship disabled. A 
few months later the city of Manila was captured with 
13,000 Spanish soldiers. 

The War in Cuba. — Meantime equally great events were 
happening in Cuba. In June an army of about 16,000 men, 
commanded by General 
William R. Shafter, 
landed in Cuba some 
miles from Santiago. 
They first captured the 
Spanish position at Las 
Guasimas, then took El 
Caney, a fortified town 
near Santiago. On July 
2 and 3 the battle of San 
Juan was fought, the 
most important land bat- 
tle of the war. The 
Americans won, with the 
loss of 241 killed and 
1400 wounded. They 
were then ready to storm 
the city of Santiago. 

A Spanish fleet, com- 
manded by Admiral Cervera, had taken refuge in Santiago 
Harbor. Outside the harbor the combined fleet of Admiral 
Sampson and Commodore Schley waited for Cervera. 
The Spanish fleet made a dash for liberty on July 3, and 
attempted to escape by flight ; but the American fleet 
attacked with great fury, and in a wild running fight of a 
few hours the entire Spanish fleet was destroyed, every 
vessel being captured or sunk. No American ship was 
injured ; one American was killed and one wounded. Two 




San Juan Blockhouse, showing Marks 
OF Shot 



432 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

weeks later Santiago surrendered and Cuba thus passed 
into the hands of the United States. 

The island of Porto Rico, which lies some 500 miles 
southeast of Cuba, was the next object of attack. General 
Nelson A. Miles landed an army on the island late in July 
and soon had possession of several of the towns ; but on 
August 1 3 the expedition came to a standstill by news that 
the United States and Spain had agreed to terms of peace. 
The agreement was that Spain should relinquish her 
sovereignty over Cuba, should cede Porto Rico to the 
United States, and that the control of the Philippines 
should be decided by a treaty. 

By the treaty, arranged at Paris late in the fall, the 
Philippines passed to the United States, on the payment 
to Spain of $20,000,000. The treaty was ratified by our 
Senate on February 6, 1899. 

Results of the War. — The conflict had continued less than 
four months. The Americans had won in every engage- 
ment. Though the war was not a great one, it was impor- 
tant when measured by results. It marked the end of 
Spanish rule in the Western Hemisphere and of the 
Spanish Empire as a world power. 

On the other hand, this Uttle war was the means of 
causing the United States to expand into a world power. 
It gave us colonial possessions of great importance and 
thus threw upon us a vast additional responsibility. 

Our Island Possessions 

Porto Rico, our new possession in the West Indies, is 
slightly above 6000 square miles in extent. It is the home 
of 950,000 people, something over half of whom are of 
Spanish descent. The island was under military govern- 



OUR ISLAND POSSESSIONS 433 

ment after the war till December, 1900, when civil govern- 
ment was established. 

The Philippine Archipelago extends almost from Borneo 
to Formosa and comprises more than 3000 islands, hun- 
dreds of which are barren, uninhabitable, volcanic rocks. 
The largest of the islands is Luzon, about the size of Ohio. 
The population of the islands by the census of 1903 was 
7,635,426, of whom more than 6,000,000 are civilized or 
partly civihzed. The people are divided into many tribes, 
the most enlightened of which are the Tagalogs, who 
number 1,460,000. The lowest class are the Negritos, 
supposed to be aborigines, of whom only 23,500 still exist. 
They are a shy, dwarfish people who wander among the 
mountains in small tribes, living on roots and small game. 
A revolt in the Philippines occurred soon after their 
occupation by the Americans. A strong young leader 
named Aguinaldo soon had an army of insurgents which 
he led against the Americans. 

Meantime the presidential campaign of 1900 had an 
important bearing on the FiUpinos. The candidates were 
the same as four years before, — McKinley and Bryan, — 
and the Democrats, having pronounced in favor of Filipino 
independence, gave courage to the insurrection. The 
Republicans were again successful ; Mr. McKinley was re- 
elected and the insurgents lost courage. In March, 1901, 
Aguinaldo was captured ; the rebellion gradually abated, 
though it had continued several years and cost our govern- 
ment many millions of dollars. ^ 

Civil government was inaugurated and on July 4, 1901, 
Judge WilUam R. Taft became the first governor. Many 
bf the officials in the government are native Filipinos, and 

1 The entire cost to the United States of the Philippine Islands to the close 
of 1905 is estimated at ^800,000,000. 

2F 



434 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

it is now agreed by both great parties in America that^at 
some time in the future the islands should be granted self- 
government. 

Cuba, meantime, had been taken possession of by the 
United States, and after many improvements had been 
made, in the school system, in the sanitary conditions, and 
the like, the government of the island was handed over to 
the inhabitants (May 20, 1902) and Cuba became almost, 
but not absolutely, an independent republic. 

Two Great World's Fairs 

The World's Columbian Exposition, commemorating the 
four hundredth year since the discovery of America by 
Columbus, was held in Chicago in 1893. 

The "White City," as the group of buildings was called, 
had cost, with the preparing of the grounds, more than 
$20,000,000 and the entire cost of the exposition was about 
$40,000,000. The main buildings, surrounding a Court of 
Honor, with its glistening lakes and stately colonnades, 
presented a scene of splendor that led the beholder to feel 
that he was in dreamland. 

The great object of the exposition was to exhibit the mar- 
velous growth of civihzation in the past four hundred years. 
Never before in the world's history had such a collection of 
the products of art, science, and manufactures been made. 

St. Louis World's Fair, 1904. — As the hundredth anni- 
versary of the purchase of Louisiana approached, the 
country prepared to hold a great exposition in commem- 
oration of the event ; but, as in the case of the Columbian 
Exposition, the year following the anniversary was chosen, 
owing to tardiness in making preparations. St. Louis, the 
largest city in the "Louisiana Purchase," was chosen as 
the place. 



ST. LOUIS WORLD'S FAIR, 



1904 



435 



This exposition was similar to that at Chicago, except 
that its dimensions were somewhat greater and there were 
many new features. 

There were five hundred buildings covering three hun- 
dred acres, and the entire cost of the great fair reached 
about $50,000,000, exceeding the cost of that at Chicago 
by some $10,000,000. 

The exhibits in the great structures, from every part 
of the world, were bewildering in their number and attrac- 
tions, and the exposition on the whole was, beyond a doubt, 
the most gorgeous and magnificent in the history of the 
human race. 



Death of McKinley ; Roosevelt 



Every indication pointed 
second term for President 
McKinley. But in the 
early part of the fall of 
1 90 1 the country was called 
to mourn the death of the 
Chief Magistrate at the 
hand of an assassin. On 
the 6th of September, while 
attending the Pan-Ameri- 
can Exposition at Buffalo, 
the President was shot 
twice by an anarchist. On 
the 14th of the same month 
he died. 

President McKinley had 
won the people's love as 
few Presidents have done. 
He was mourned by every 



to a happy and prosperous 




Theodore Roosevelt 



436 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

class of his countrymen, except the anarchists, who are 
foes to all government. On the day of his death Theodore 
Roosevelt of New York, who had been elected Vice Presi- 
dent, was sworn into the great office at Buffalo. Mr. 
Roosevelt had attracted public attention as a fearless 
officer and as a dashing soldier in Cuba. He now declared 
that he would carry out the policy of McKinley and, for 
the time, retained the latter's entire Cabinet. 

The Isthmian Canal 

For more than fifty years the subject of a canal across 
the isthmus between North and South America had en- 
gaged the attention of the people of the United States, 
and, to some extent, of all civilized nations. 

Nicaragua or Panama ? — While the American people 
were discussing the matter, a French company, organized 
by Ferdinand de Lesseps, made an attempt to join the two 
oceans at Panama, beginning the work in 1881. 

The Americans meantime focused their attention on 
Nicaragua. A private company was organized, but in the 
course of ten years nothing of importance was done. The 
attention of Congress was turned toward government 
ownership and various commissions were appointed to in- 
vestigate. Meanwhile the French company, after spend- 
ing a vast sum on the project, collapsed and offered to sell 
its interests to the United States. 

The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, between the United 
States and England, had provided that neither country 
should construct a canal across the isthmus without the 
cooperation of the other. This treaty was superseded by 
the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 by which the neutrality 
of the canal is guaranteed, while the United States becomes 
the sole builder. 



REVOLT IN PANAMA 



437 



Arrangements were then made with the French com- 
pany to purchase its interests for $40,000,000, on the 
condition that the United States government could secure 
a franchise for the right of way from Colombia. 

Revolt in Panama. — A treaty was framed, known as the 
Hay-Herran Treaty, between the United States and the 
Colombian government, by which the former was to have 




PAiNAMA Canal in Const ruction^ 



the lease of a canal belt across the isthmus for a hundred 
years with the privilege of perpetual renewal. The term3 
were that the United States pay Colombia a cash bonus 
of $10,000,000 and an annual rental after the canal should 
be finished. 

The United States Senate ratified the treaty m March, 
1903; but the Colombian Senate, after a long session, 
rejected the treaty by a unanimous vote. This was 



438 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

a strange proceeding, since the canal would become a won- 
derful stimulus to Colombian prosperity. The apparent 
motive in rejecting the treaty was to exact a larger bonus 
from the United States ; but something else happened. 

Scarcely had the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty 
when the people of Panama, who greatly favored the canal, 
rose in rebellion and proclaimed an independent republic. 

The United States and the European powers quickly 
recognized the new republic. Colombia saw her blunder 
when too late. She offered the canal franchise free if our 
government would allow her to send an army to put down 
the revolt in Panama. The offer was refused. 

We then proceeded to make a treaty with Panama and 
this was ratified by Panama in December, 1903, and by 
the United States Senate in February, 1904. By this 
treaty Panama receives $10,000,000 and a guarantee of 
protection in her independence, while the French company 
receives its $40,000,000. The United States is granted 
sovereignty over the canal belt across the isthmus ten 
miles wide. 

Work on the great waterway soon began and is now in 
progress. The distance across the isthmus is fifty miles, 
and the constructing of the canal is the greatest engineer- 
ing project in history. It will require the labor of thou- 
sands of men for at least ten years and will cost several 
hundred millions of dollars. 

The Panama Canal when finished will be a work of in- 
calculable value to the commercial world. The distance 
by sea from New York to San Francisco now is 13,714 
miles, and will be reduced to 5299, a saving of 8415 miles. 
The gain from Liverpool to San Francisco will be 6046 
miles, and from New York to Sidney, Australia, about 
4000 miles. 



/ 

SUMMARY 439 



SUMMARY 

Mr. Cleveland became 'President a second time in 1893. He with- 
drew the Hawaiian Treaty on the ground that the islands were not 
willing to become an American possession; but in 1897 Hawaii was 
annexed to the United States. 

A panic, beginning in 1893, continued for several years. The Wilson 
Tariflf was passed in 1893, and a year later the Republicans won control 
of Congress. 

The Venezuelan message of 1895 brought about arbitration between 
Venezuela and Great Britain, 

In the campaign of 1896 Mr. Bryan was defeated by McKinley on 
the silver issue. 

The Spanish War came about through a revolution in Cuba against 
the misgovernment of the island by Spain, and was undertaken by the 
United States for the purpose of rescuing the Cubans from oppression. 

The first battle was the naval engagement at Manila, May i. 1898, 
in which Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet. After several engagements 
in Cuba Santiago surrendered and the Spanish fleet emerging from the 
harbor was destroyed by the American fleet. 

Peace was agreed on in August. Cuba became free from Spanish 
control, while Porto Rico, and later the Philippine Islands, were ceded 
by Spain to the United States. 

The Filipinos rose in rebellion against the Americans and a desultory 
warfare was kept up for several years, but at length it subsided and civil 
government was inaugurated. The islands comprise 115,000 square 
miles, the population being 7,635,426. Porto Rico was granted civil 
government, while Cuba became a self-governing republic. 

Two great World's Fairs were held, one at Chicago in 1893, com- 
memorating the discovery of America; the other at St. Louis in 1904, 
celebrating the centennial of the Louisiana Purchase. 

President McKinley was inaugurated for a second term on March 4, 
1 90 1, and in September was assassinated, Theodore Roosevelt being 
sworn into the office. 

The long-continued desire to construct a ship canal between the two 
Americas resulted in securing the right of way from Panama, which 
became an independent republic by breaking away from Colombia in 
the autumn of 1903. For the sum of $10,000,000 the United States 
secured sovereignty over a canal belt ten miles in width. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

DAWN OF THE NEW CENTURY 

The dawn of the twentieth century found the United 
States in a most prosperous condition, and in the most 
friendly relations with all other countries. A brief notice 
of what we have done, what we are, and what we hope to 
be as a nation will fittingly close this volume. But first 
we must notice 

The Roosevelt Administration, 1901- 

We have noticed the occasion of President Roosevelt's 
accession to the great office that he now fills, and also the 
important work on the Panama Canal, in which he has 
been the most conspicuous figure. This brings us to the 

Presidential Campaign of 1904. — The call for the nomi- 
nation of Roosevelt to become his own successor came, not 
from the politicians and leaders of his own party, but from 
the masses of the people, and though a determined effort 
was made by his enemies to defeat him, it was not success- 
ful. He was nominated at Chicago in June by a unani- 
mous vote, all opposition having melted away before the 
meeting of the convention. Charles W. Fairbanks of Indi- 
ana, one of the strongest leaders in the Senate, was named 
for Vice President. 

The Democrats met in St. Louis some weeks later and 
nominated Judge Alton B. Parker of New York. Both 

440 



RAILROAD RATE REGULATION 441 

candidates were men of high character and the campaign 
was clean and dignified. 

Mr. Bryan, who, for eight years past, had been looked 
upon as the Democratic leader, opposed the nomination of 
Parker. But when Mr. Parker became the nominee of the 
party, Mr. Bryan fell into line and used his efforts to se- 
cure a Democratic victory, but Mr. Parker came far short 
of receiving the full party strength. Mr. Roosevelt was 
therefore elected by a very large majority, he receiving 
336 electoral votes to 140 for Parker, and a popular major- 
ity of more than 2,500,000. 

The Socialist candidate, Eugene V. Debs, received about 
400,000 votes ; the Populist candidate, Thomas E. Watson, 
120,000, and the Prohibition candidate, Silas C. Swallow, 
about 260,000 votes. A few hours after the result of the 
election was known the President made the statement that 
on no condition would he be a candidate for the office 
again. 

Railroad Rate Regulation ; Arbitration Treaties. — The 
short session of the Fifty-eighth Congress, following the 
election, was noted for the sharp differences between the 
President and the Senate. 

The most conspicuous of these grew out of the proposed 
anti-rebate law, or railroad regulation. It seemed that both 
the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 and the Elkins 
Anti-Rebate law of 1902 had failed to reach the rebate 
evil and Mr. Roosevelt urged in his message of December, 
1904, that an additional law be enacted. But there was 
great opposition in the Senate. The House passed a bill 
to the desired end in February, 1905, but the Senate re- 
fused to pass it and the matter was left over. Again in 
December, 1905, the President urged the passage of such 
a law and every fair-minded citizen hopes that he may in 



442 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



the end succeed in obtaining it. President Roosevelt 
arranged with eight foreign countries treaties of arbitra- 
tion by which certain classes of disputes should be settled 
by The Hague tribunal ; but these were so changed by the 
Senate that the President refused to consider them further. 
Santo Domingo. — Again there was a sharp contention 
between the President and the Senate, on account of the 
republic of Santo Domingo on the island of Haiti. That 
country, in which one revolution had followed another. 




CENTEK OF POPULATION 

AT THE CLOSE OF EACH DECADE FROM 
1790 TO 1900 



unable to pay its foreign creditors, appealed to the United 
States to become the custodian of a portion of its revenues. 
Mr. Roosevelt thereupon made an agreement with the 
Dominican president to that end and submitted it to 
the Senate. But the Senate, after long discussion of the 
matter, failed either to ratify or reject the agreement. 



Our Nation To-day 

Distribution of Population. — No other great nation has 
been peopled and developed so rapidly as our own. At 
the close of the Revolution, a century and a quarter ago, 



DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 



443 



the people, who numbered scarcely four million, were 
scattered along the eastern seaboard, but few having 
crossed the Appalachian Mountains. The Ohio Valley 
was then the remote far West; Texas and .California be- 
longed to Spanish Mexico ; Florida and the vast region of 
Louisiana were in the possession of Spain, and the owner- 
ship of Oregon was unsettled. In these regions the red 




NUning in the West 

men of the forest and the wild animals roamed unrestrained, 
as they had done before the coming of Columbus. 

Since then all this has been claimed for civilization. 
Our population now exceeds 80,000,000, more than half 
of whom find a home in the great basin of the Mississippi.^ 

1 The population by the census of 1900 was, inchiding Hawaii and Alaska, 
76,303,387. Of these the native born numbered 65,843,302; the foreign born, 
ioi46o',o85. The white population numbered 66,990,788 ; negro, 8,840,789 ; 
Chinese,>»ii9,050; Japanese, 86,000 ; Indian, 266,760. See Census Report 
I, Vol. I, Part I, pp. 482, 483- 



444 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The far West is also rapidly gaining, and with its mines, 
its cattle ranches, and its orange groves, jt has come to be 
of equal importance with any other section. 

Immigration. — Such a growth of our great land would 
have been impossible but for the river of humanity that is 
flowing to our shores from Europe. For many years after 
the Revolution the immigrants came in small numbers 
and not before 1840 did they reach 100,000 a year. 
The largest number before the Civil War was about 
400,000 in one year. In the past few years before 1906 
the arrivals have exceeded a miUion a year. Many of 
these immigrants are among the stanchest and best of 
our population. 

Education ; Religion. — No other country equals our own 
in the extent and variety of its schools. Every state in 
the Union has its free school system and through them the 
rudiments of an education are offered free to every child. 
In addition to these are great numbers of universities, 
colleges, academies, denominational and private schools.^ 

In religion we are as free as in our personal liberty. 
Every man can believe and preach what he will, so long as 
his doctrine and practice are not subversive of the public 
morals and do not infringe the rights of others. 

Art ; Sculpture ; Music ; Literature ; Invention. — The 
American people have, for the most part, devoted their 
energies to the developing of the continent and have given 
less attention to the fine arts. In art, in sculpture, we 
must still find our models in the old masters of other lands ; 
in music we have only made a beginning and are still 
dependent on the German and the Italian ; in literature we 

1 The whole number of public school teachers in the United States is 
450,000. Of these 120,000 are men and 330,000 women ; 21,000 are colored, 
500 Indians. 



OUR GREATEST ACHIEVEMENTS 445 

have made a noble beginning, but we must still bow to the 
mother country, whose classic treasures are our rightful 
inheritance. But in useful inventions we surpass all peoples 
of all ages. That this one country in a single century has 
given to the world steam navigation, the electric telegraph, 
the cylinder press, the sewing machine, the mower and 
reaper, the telephone, the electric light, and electric rail- 





^l 



A North Dakota Wheat Field 

way, is the most astonishing fact in the history of modern 
progress. 

Our Greatest Achievement. — The most important achieve- 
ment of the American people lies in the fact that they 
have solved the greatest of all governmental problems — 
the problem of self-government. Other nations have 
attempted the same in the past and have not succeeded. 
The United States is the first great nation to establish and 
maintain a "government of the people, by the people, and 
for the people, in which there seems no tendency toward 
anarchy on the one hand, nor monarchy on the other. 

But we have much yet to do. It is true that we have 
reached a fine balance between national strength and' per- 
sonal liberty, but there are serious problems yet to be 
solved, and their right solution will depend on the personal 



446 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

virtue of the people. We have before us such problems 
as grow out of the commingling of many peoples from 
many lands, the tendency to monopoly in the business 
world, and, most serious of all, the tendency to private 
graft in public officials. These and other problems the 
American people must courageously grapple with, and on 
their success will rest the future of our great land. 



APPENDIX I 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA^ 

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more per- 
fect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for 
the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the 
Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

Article. I 

Section, i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, 
and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for 
Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to 
the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of 
that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several States which may be included within this Union, according 
to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to 
the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service 
for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all 
other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three 
Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and 
1 Reprinted from the text issued by the State Department. 
447 



448 APPENDIX I 

within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they 
shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed 
one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one 
Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of 
New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- 
York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary- 
land six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and 
Georgia three. 

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the 
Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such 
Vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other 
Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the 
first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated 
at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- 
tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the 
sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year ; and if 
Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of 
the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tempo- 
rary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which 
shall then fill such Vacancies. 

Mo Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for 
which he shall be chosen. 

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Sen:ite shall chuse their other Officers, "and also a President 
pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall 
exercise the Office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. 
When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 



APPENDIX I 



449 



shall preside: And'no Person shall} be convicted without the Concur- 
rence of two thirds of the Members present. 

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
Office of honor. Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party 
convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, 
Judgment and Punishment, according to law. 

Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections 
for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by 
the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make 
or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such 
Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall 
by Law appoint a different Day. 

Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, 
Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of 
each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number 
may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the 
Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penal- 
ties as each House may provide. 

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, Punish 
its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of 
two thirds, expel a member. 

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their 
Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of 
either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those 
Present, be entered on the Journal. 

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the 
Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any 
other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a 
Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid 
out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, 
except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from 
Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective 
Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any 
Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any 
other Place. 



450 APPENDIX I 

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of 
the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments 
whereof shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person 
holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either 
House during his Continuance in Office. 

Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur 
with Amendments as on other Bills. 

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the 
President of the United States ; If he approve he shall sign it, but 
if not he shall return it, with his Objections, to that House in which it 
shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their 
Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two 
thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together 
with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be 
reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall 
become a law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall 
be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting 
for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House 
respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within 
ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, 
the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case 
it shall not be a Law. 

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States ; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and 
Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. 

Section. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect 
Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for 
the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ; but all 
Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United 
States ; 

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; 



APPENDIX I 451 

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian Tribes; 

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws 
on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and 
fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; 

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current Coin of the United States ; 

To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; 

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing 
for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to 
their respective Writings and Discoveries ; 

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; 

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high 
Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ; 

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make 
Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ; 

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that 
Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; 

To provide and maintain a Navy ; 

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and 
naval Forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the 
Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and 
for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service 
of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint- 
ment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according 
to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over 
such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of 
particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of 
the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority 
over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the 
State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, 
Arsenals, dock- Yards, and other needful Buildings; —And 

To make all Laws which shall ,be necessary and proper for carrying 
into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers ves^ted by 
this Constitution in the Government of the Llnited States, or in any 
Department or Officer thereof. 



452 APPENDIX I 

Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each Person, 

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may 
require it. 

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax, shall be laid, unless in Propor- 
tion to the Census or Enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or 
Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall 
Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
Duties in another. 

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence 
of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account 
of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub- 
lished from time to time. 

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no 
Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, with- 
out the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, 
Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or for- 
eign State. 

Section, to. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or 
Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; 
emit Bills of Credit ; make any thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender 
in Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law 
or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of 
Nobility. 

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im- 
posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely 
necessary for executing its inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all 
Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be 
for the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws 
shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of 
Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into 



APPENDIX I 453 

any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, 
or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger 
as will not admit of Delay. 

Article. II 

Section, i. The executive Power shall be vested in a President 
of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the 
Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for 
the same Term, be elected, as follows 

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as tlie Legislatiu'e tliereuf 
may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of 
Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in 
the Congress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an 
Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed 
an Elector. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabi- 
tant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of 
all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which 
List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of 
the Government of the United States, directed to the President of 
the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the 
Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number 
of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the 
whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one 
who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the 
House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of 
them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the 
five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the 
President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by 
States, the Representation from each State having one Vote ; A quo- 
rum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two 
thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be neces- 
sary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the 
Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be 
the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have 
equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice 
President. 



454 APPENDIX I 

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and 
the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligi- 
ble to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to 
that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, 
and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. 

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his 
Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of 
the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the 
Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resig- 
nation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring 
what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act 
accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be 
elected. 

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a 
Compensation, which shall neither be Increased nor diminished during 
the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the fol- 
lowing Oath or Affirmation : — 

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my 
Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United 
States.'' 

Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he 
may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of 
the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of 
their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and 
Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of 
Impeachment. 

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the 
Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present 
concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Con- 
sent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers 



APPENDIX I 455 

and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of 
the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise pro- 
vided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress 
may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think 
proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of 
Departments. 

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may 
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions 
which shall expire at the End of their next Session. 

Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- 
mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera- 
tion such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he 
may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of 
them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the 
Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall 
think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Mmis- 
ters ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall 
Commission all the Officers of the United States. 

Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, 
and Conviction of. Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misde- 
meanors. 

Article. Ill 

Section, i . The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested 
in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress 
may from time to time ordam and establish. The Judges, both of 
the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good 
Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com- 
pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in 
Office. 

Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law 
and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author- 
ity;— to all Cases affecting Amba^.sadors, other public Ministers and 
Consuls; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; —to 
Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party ; —to Con- 
troversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens 
of another State ; — between Citizens of different States, — between 
Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different 



456 APPENDIX I 

States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, 
Citizens, or subjects. 

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- 
suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court 
shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned 
the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and 
Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be 
by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes 
shall have been committed ; but w^ien not committed within any State, 
the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law 
have directed. 

Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only 
in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving 
them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason 
unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on 
Confession in open Court. 

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of 
Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corrviption of Blood, 
or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. 

'Article. IV 

Section, i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to 
the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. 
And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in 
which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the 
effect thereof. 

Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other 
Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall 
on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, 
be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the 
Crime. 

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or 
Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall 



APPENDIX I 457 

be deliverea up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour 
may be due. 

Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the 
Jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the Junc- 
tion of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of 
the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need- 
ful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property 
belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall 
be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or 
of any particular State. 

Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them 
against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the 
Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic 
Violence. 

Article. V 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either case, 
shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes as part of this Constitution, 
when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, 
or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other 
Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that 
no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth 
Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, 
without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the 
Senate. 

Article. VI 

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the 
Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall 
be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 



458 APPENDIX I 

Law of the land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, 
any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the Contrary not- 
withstanding. 

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judi- 
cial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall 
be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no 
religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or 
public Trust under the United States. 

Article. VII 

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient 
for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so rati- 
fying the Same. 

THE AMENDMENTS 
I 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assem- 
ble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 

II 

A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free 
State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be 
infringed. 

Ill 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without 
the consent of the Owner, nor in time of w^ar, but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 

IV 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 



APPENDIX 1 459 

V 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in 
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in 
actual service in time of War or pviblic danger ; nor shall any person 
be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or 
limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, 
without just compensation. 

VI 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in 
his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. 

VII 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no 
fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the 
United States, than according to the mles of the common law. 

VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

IX 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

X 

The powers not delegated to the United States by th6 Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 



460 APPENDIX I 



XI 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or 
Subjects of any Foreign State. 

XII 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot 
for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be 
an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in 
their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots 
the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for 
as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists 
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov- 
ernment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; 
— The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall 
then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for 
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. 
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the 
representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act 
as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disa- 
bility of the President. The person having the greatest number of 
votes as Vice-President, shall be Vice-President, if such number be a 
majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person 
have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the 
Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose 
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a 



APPENDIX I 461 

majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no 
person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

XIII 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris- 
diction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

XIV 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and 
of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any 
law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the 
United States : nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- 
ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President 
and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, 
the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the 
Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such 
State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, 
or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other 
crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- 
portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- 
gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, 
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, 
having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or 
as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitu- 



4^2 APPENDIX I 

lion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. 
But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such 
disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall 
assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or 
rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- 
cipation of a:ny slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall 
be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- 
priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

XV 

Section i . The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 



APPENDIX II 



TABLE OF THE STATES 



Name 



Delaware . . 
Pennsylvania 
New Jersey . 



Georgia . . . 
Connecticut . 
Massachusetts 
Maryland . . 



South Carolina . 
New Hampshire 
Virginia .... 



New York . . . . ^ 
North Carolina . 
Rhode Island . . 

Vermont admitted 
Kentucky admitted 

Tennessee admitted 

Ohio admitted . . 
Louisiana admitted 
Indiana admitted . 
Mississippi admitted 
Illinois admitted . 
Alabama admitted 
Maine admitted . . 
Missouri admitted 
Arkansas admitted 
Michigan admitted 
Florida admitted . 
Texas admitted . . 
Iowa admitted . . 
Wisconsin adm tied 
Calilornia admitted 

Minnesota admitted 
Oregon admitted . 
Kansas admitted . 
West Virginia admitted 
Nevada admitted . . . 



Date of 
Admission 



Dec. 7, 1787 
Dec 12, 1787 
Dec. 18, 1787 

Jan 2, 1788 

Jan 9, 1788 

Feb. 6, 1788 

April 28, 1788 



May 23, 1788 
June 21, 1788 
June 25, 1788 

July 26, 1788 
Nov. 21, 1789 
May 29, 1790 

1791 
1792 

1796 

1803 
1812 
1816 
1817 
1818 
18x9 
1820 
1821 
1836 
1837 
1845 
1845 
1846 
1848 
1850 



Origin of Name 



1859 
1861 
1863 
1864 



In honor of Lord Delaware. 
Latin, Penn's Woods . . . 
In honor of governor of 

Jersey Island 
In honor of George II. . . 
Indian, Long River .... 
The place of Hills .... 
In honor of Queen Henri- 
etta Maria, wife of 

Charles I 
In honor of Charles II. . . 
Hampshire, England . . . 
In honor of Elizabeth, the 

" Virgin Queen." 
In honor of Duke of York . 
In honor of Charles II. . . 
Rhodes, an island in the 

iEgean Sea 

French, Green Mt 

Indian, Dark and Bloody 

Ground (?) 
Indian, River with the 

Great Bend 
Indian, Beautiful River 
In honor of Louis XIV. 
Indian Ground .... 
Indian, Father of Waters 
Indian, Tribe of Men . 
Indian, Place of Rest . 
The main land .... 
Indian, Muddy River . 
I'rom a tribe of Indians 
Indian, Great Lake . . 
Spanish, Flowing . . . 
From a tiibe of Indians 
Indian, Sleepy Ones . 
Indian, Rushing Channel 
From an old Spanish ro 

mance 
Indian, Cloudy Water . 
Spanish, Wild Marjoram 
Indian, Smoky Water . 
From Virginia .... 
Spanish, Snow-covered 

463 




2,050 

45,215 

7,815 

59,475 
4,990 
8,315 

12,210 



30,570 
9,305 
42,450 

49,170 

52,250 

1,250 

9,565 
40,400 

42,050 

41,060 
48,720 
36,350 
46,810 
56,650 
52,250 
33,040 
69,415 
53,850 
58,915 
58,680 

265,780 
56,025 
56,040 

158,360 

83,365 
96,030 
82,080 
24,780 
110,700 



Popula- 
tion, 
1900 



184,735 
6,302,115 
1,883,669 

2,216,331 

908,355 

2,805,346 

1,190,050 



1,340,316 

411,588 

1,854,184 

7,268,012 

1,893,810 

428,556 

343.641 
2,147,174 

2,020,616 

4.157,545 
1,381,625 
2,516,462 
1,551,270 
4,821,550 
1,828,697 
694,466 
3,106,665 

1,311,564 

2,420,982 

528,542 

3,048,710 

2,231,853 
2,069,042 

1,485,053 

1,751,394 
413,536 

1,470,495 

958,800 

42,335 



464 



APPENDIX II 



TABLE OP^ THE STATES — Continued 



Name 


Date of 

Admission 


Origin of Name 


Area 
Square 
Miles 


Popula- 
tion, 
1900 


37 Nebraska admitted . . 

38. Colorado admitted . . 

39. North Dakota admitted 

40. South Dakota admitted 

41. Montana admitted . . 

42. Washington admitted . 

43. Idaho admitted . . . 

44 Wyoming admitted . . 
45. Utah admitted .... 


1867 
1876 
1889 

1889 
1889 

1889 

1890 

1890 
1896 


Indian, Shallow Water . . 

Spanish, Red or Ruddy . . 

Indian, Allied (referring to 
Indian tribes). 

Indian, the same 

Spanish, Land of Moun- 
tains. 

Named after George Wash- 
ington. 

Indian, Gem of the Moun- 
tains. 

Indian, Extensive Plain . . 

Indian, Mountain Home . 


77,510 
103,925 
70.795 

77,650 
146,080 

69,180 

84,800 

97,890 
84,970 


T,o68,539 
539.700 
319,146 

401,570 
243.329 

518,103 
161,772 

92,531 
276,749 



THE TERRITORIES, Etc. 



Okg.\nized 



Square Miles 



Population 



District of Columbia 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Okl.ihoma 

India. 1 Territory . 

Alaska (purchased from Russia) 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

Philippines (Treaty) 

Guam (Treaty) 

Tutuila, etc 



1791 
1850 
1863 
1890 
1834 
1867 
1900 
1900 



[899 



64 
122,580 
113,020 
39,030 
31,400 
590,884 

6,449 

3,606 

115,026 

175 

500 



278,718 
195.310 
122,931 

398,245 
391,960 

63,592 
154,000 

953,243 

7,635,426 

9,000 

6,000 



Note. —The total surface of continental United States is 2,970,230 sq. mi.; including 
Alaska and island possessions it is 3,690,822 sq mi. The population of continental United 
States In 1900 was 75,994,575; including all possessions it was 84,233,069. 





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465 



APPENDIX IV 

TABLE OF THE CITIES EXCEEDING 25,000 INHABITANTS 



CITY 



Akron, Ohio . 
Albany, N Y. 
Allegheny, Pa. 
Allcntown, Pa. 
Altoona, Pa. . 



Atlanta, Ga. 
Atlantic City, N 
Auburn, N Y. 
Augusta, Ga . 
Baltimore, Md 



Bay City, Mich 
Bayonne, N J 
Binghamton, N 
Birmingham, Al 
Boston, Mass 



Bridgeport, Con 
Brockton, Mass 
Bufialo, N. Y. , 
Butte, Mont. . 
Cambridge, Mass 



Camden, N J 
Canton, Ohio . . . 
Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
Charleston, S C . 
Chattanooga, lenn. 



Chelsea, Mass. . . . 

Chester, Pa 

Chicago, III 

Cincinnati, Ohio . . 
Cleveland, Ohio . . 

Columbus, Ohio . . 
Council Bluffs, Iowa 
Covington, Ky. . . . 

Dallas, Tex 

Davenport, Iowa . . 



POPULATION 



1900 



42,728 
94,151 
129,896 
35,416 
38,973 

89,872 
27,838 
30,345 
39,441 
508,957 

27,628 
32,722 
39,647 
38,415 
560,892 

70,996 
40,063 
352,387 
30,470 
91,886 

75,935 
30,067 
25,656 
55,807 
30,154 

34,072 

33,988 

,698,575 

325,902 

381,768 

125,560 
25,802 
42,938 
42,638 
35,254 



1890 



27,601 

94,923 
105,287 
25,228 
30,337 

65,533 
13,055 
25,858 
33,300 
434,439 

27,839 
19,033 
35,005 
26,178 
448,477 

48,866 
27,294 
255,664 
10,723 
70,028 

58,313 
26,189 
18,020 
54,955 
29,100 

27,909 

20,226 

1,099,850 

296,908 

261,353 

88,150 
21,474 

37,371 
38,067 
26,872 



CITY 



Dayton, Ohio . . 
Denver, Colo. . . 
Des Moines, Iowa 
Detroit, Mich. . . 
Dubuque, Iowa . . 



Duluth, Minn. . . 
Easton, Pa 
East St. Louis, 111. 
Elizabeth, N J. . 

Elmira, N. Y. . . 



Erie, Pa 

Evansville, Ind. 
Fall River, Mass. 
Fitchburg, Mass. 
Fort Wayne, Ind. 



Fort Worth, Tex. . . 
Galveston, Tex. . . 
Gloucester Mass 
Grand Rapids, Mich. 
Harrisburg, Pa. . . 



Hartford, Conn . 
Haverhill, Mass . 
Hoboken, N. J. 
Holyoke, Mass. . 
Honolulu, Hawaii 

Houston, Tex. . . 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
Jackson, Mich. . . 
Jacksonville, Fla. 
Jersey City, N. J. 



Johnstown, Pa. . . 

Joliet, 111 

Joplin, Mo. . . . 
Kansas City, Kans. 
Kansas City, Mo. . 



POPULATION 



85,333 
133,859 

62,139 
285,704 

36,297 

52,969 
25,238 
29,655 
52,130 

35,672 

52,733 
59,007 
104,863 
31,531 
45,115 

26,688 

37,789 
26,121 

87,565 
50,167 

79,850 
37,175 
59,364 
45,712 
39,306 

44,633 
169,164 
25,180 
28,429 
206,433 

35,936 
29,353 
26,023 
51,418 
163,752 



1890 



61,220 
106,713 

50,093 
205,876 

30,311 

33,115 
14,481 
15,169 
37,764 
30,893 

40.634 
50,750 
74,398 
22,037 
35,393 

23,076 
29,084 
24,651 
60,278 
39,385 

53,230 
27,412 
43,648 
35,637 
22,907 

27,557 
105,436 
20,798 
17,201 
163 003 

21,805 
23,264 
9,943 
38,316 
132,716 



466 



APPENDIX IV 467 

TABLE OF THE CITIES — Continued 



CITY 



Kiioxville, Tenn. 
La Crosse, Wis. 
Lancaster, Pa. . 
Lawrence, Mass. 
Lexington, Ky. . 



Lincoln, Nebr. . 
Little Rock, Ark. 
Los Angeles, Cal. 
Louisville, Ky. . 
Lowell, Mass. . 



Lynn, Mass. . . 
McKeesport,'Pa. 
Maiden, Mass. . 
Manchester, N H 
Memphis, Tenn. 

Milwaukee, Wis. , 
Minneapolis, Minn 
Mobile, Ala. . . 
Montgomery, Ala 
Nashville, Tenn. 



Newark, N. J. 
New Bedford, Mass 
New Britain, Conn. 
Newcastle, Pa. . . 
New Haven, Conn. 

New Orleans, La. 
Newport, Ky. . 
Newton, Mass. . 
New York, N. Y. 
Norfolk, Va. . . 



Oakland, Cal. . 
Omaha, Neb. . . 
Oshkosh, Wis. . 
Passaic, N. J. . 
Paterson, N. J. . 

Pawtucket, R. L 
Peoria, 111. . . . 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Pittsburg, Pa. . 
Portland, Me. . 



Portland, Oreg . 
Providence, R. I. 
Pueblo, Colo. . . 
Quincy, 111. . . 
Racine, Wis. . . 



Reading, Pa. . 
Richmond, Va. 



POPULATION 



1900 



32,637 
28,895 
41,459 
62,559 
26,369 



78,961 
85,050 



22,535 
25,090 
32,011 
44,654 
21,567 



40,169 


55,154 


38,307 


25,874 


102,479 


50,395 


204,731 


161,129 


94,969 


77,696 


68,513 


55,727 


34,227 


20,741 


33,664 


23,031 


56,987 


44,126 


102,320 


64,495 


285,315 


204,468 


202,718 


164,738 


38,469 


31,076 


30,346 


21,883 


80,865 


76,168 


246,070 


181,830 


62,442 


40,733 


25,998 


16,519 


28,339 


11,600 


108,027 


81,298 


287,104 


242,039 


28,301 


24,918 


33,587 


24,379 


3,437,202 


1,515,301 


46,624 


34,871 


66,960 


48,682 


102,555 


140,452 


28,284 


22,836 


27,777 


13,028 


105,171 


78,347 


39,231 


27,633 


56,100 


41,024 


1,293,697 


1,046,964 


321,616 


238,617 


50,145 


36,425 


90,426 


46,385 


175,597 


132,146 


28,157 


24,558 


36,252 


31,494 


29,102 


21,014 



CITY 



Rochester, N. Y. . . . 

Rockford, 111 

Sacramento, Cal. . . . 

Saginaw, Mich. . . . 
St. Joseph, Mo. . . . 

>St. Louis, Mo 

St. Paul, Minn 

Salem, Mass 

Salt Lake City, Utah . 
San Antonio, Tex. . . 
San Francisco, Cal. . . 

Savannah, Ga 

Schenectady, N. Y. . . 

Scranton, Pa 

Seattle, Wash 

Sioux City, Iowa. . . . 
Somerville, Mass. . . 
South Bend, Ind. . . . 

South Omaha, Neb. . . 
Spokane, Wash. . . . 

Springfield, 111 

Springfield, Mass. . . 
Springfield, Ohio . . . 

Superior, Wis . . . . 

Syracuse, N. Y. . . . 

Tacoma, Wash. . . . 

Taunton. Mass. . . . 

Terre Haute, Ind. . . 

Toledo, Ohio 

Topeka, Kans 

Trenton, N. J 

Troy, N. Y 

Utica.N. Y 

Washington, D. C. . . 
Waterbury, Conn. . . 
Wheeling, W. Va. . . 

Wilkesbarre, Pa. . . . 

Williamsport, Pa. . . . 

Wilmington, Del. . . . 

Woonsocket, R. I. . . 

Worcester, Mass. . . . 

Yonkers, N. Y 

York, Pa. ...... 

Yoimgstown, Ohio . . 



POPULATION 



1900 



162,608 
31,051 
29,282 

42,345 
102,979 
575,238 
163,065 

35,956 

53,531 
53,321 
342,782 
54,244 
31,682 

102,026 
80,671 
33,111 
61,643 
35,999 

26,001 
36,848 

34,159 
62,059 

38,253 

31,091 
108,374 
37,714 
31,036 
36,673 

131,822 
33,608 
73,307 
60,651 

56,383 
278,718 

45,859 



51,721 
28,757 
76,508 
28,204 



47,931 
33,708 
44,885 



